RF Components and Circuits

aaredbb

Foreword ................................................................... ?
Remembering Joe Carr, K4IPV ................................. ?
Preface ....................................................................... ?
Part 1 Introduction .................................................... 1
1 Introduction to radio frequencies .......................... 1
What are the ’radio frequencies’? .................................. 1
Why are radio frequencies different? ............................. 1
What this book covers .................................................... 1
2 Signals and noise .................................................... 2
Types of signals ............................................................. 2
Static and quasistatic signals ........................................... 2
Periodic signals ................................................................ 2
Repetitive signals ............................................................. 2
Transient signals and pulse signals ................................. 9
Fourier series ................................................................. 9
Waveform symmetry ...................................................... 11
Transient signals ............................................................ 17
Sampled signals ............................................................. 18
Noise .............................................................................. 21
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or Sn) ................................... 27
Noise factor, noise figure and noise temperature .......... 29
Noise factor (FN) .............................................................. 29
Noise figure (NF) .............................................................. 30
Noise temperature ( Te) ................................................... 30
Noise in cascade amplifiers ........................................... 31
Noise reduction strategies .............................................. 31
Noise reduction by signal averaging .............................. 32
Example ......................................................................... 32
3 Radio receivers ....................................................... 3
Signals, noise and reception .......................................... 3
The reception problem ................................................... 35
Strategies ....................................................................... 37
Radio receiver specifications ......................................... 38
Origins ............................................................................ 38
Crystal video receivers ..................................................... 3.4
Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receivers ........................... 3.4
Superheterodyne receivers ............................................ 3.4
Heterodyning .................................................................... 42
Front-end circuits .............................................................. 44
Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier ............................... 44
Detector ............................................................................ 44
Audio amplifiers ................................................................ 44
Receiver performance factors ........................................ 44
Units of measure ............................................................ 45
Input signal voltage .......................................................... 45
dBm .................................................................................. 45
dBmV ................................................................................ 46
dB ..................................................................................... 46
V ....................................................................................... 46
Noise .............................................................................. 46
Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or Sn) ................................... 46
Receiver noise floor ....................................................... 47
Static measures of receiver performance ...................... 47
Sensitivity ....................................................................... 47
Selectivity ....................................................................... 50
Front-end bandwidth ........................................................ 52
Image rejection ................................................................. 53
1st IF rejection .................................................................. 54
IF bandwidth ..................................................................... 54
IF passband shape factor ................................................. 55
Distant frequency (’ultimate’) rejection ............................. 57
Stability ........................................................................... 57
AGC range and threshold .............................................. 58
Dynamic performance .................................................... 58
Intermodulation products ................................................ 59
-1 dB compression point ................................................ 60
Third-order intercept point .............................................. 60
Dynamic range ............................................................... 62
Blocking.......................................................................... 63
Cross-modulation ........................................................... 63
Reciprocal mixing ........................................................... 64
IF notch rejection ............................................................ 64
Internal spurii .................................................................. 65
Part 2 Circuits ........................................................... 2
4 RF amplifiers ........................................................... 4
Noise and preselectors/preamplifiers ............................. 70
Amplifier configurations .................................................. 70
Transistor gain ............................................................... 70
Classification by common element ................................. 72
Common emitter circuits ................................................... 72
Common collector circuits ................................................ 73
Common base circuits ...................................................... 73
Transistor biasing ........................................................... 73
Collector-to-base bias ...................................................... 74
Emitter bias or ˛self-biasÌ .................................................. 74
Frequency characteristics .............................................. 75
JFET and MOSFET connections ................................... 75
JFET preselector ............................................................ 76
VHF receiver preselector ............................................... 79
MOSFET preselector ..................................................... 79
Voltage-tuned receiver preselector ................................ 81
Broadband RF preamplifier for VLF, LF and AM BCB ... 81
Push-pull RF amplifiers .................................................. 84
Types of push-pull RF amplifiers ...................................... 84
Actual circuit details .......................................................... 86
Broadband RF amplifier (50 ohm input and output) ....... 88
5 Mixers ....................................................................... 5.1
Linear-vs-non-linear mixers ............................................ 5.1
Simple diode mixer ......................................................... 94
The question of ˛balanceÌ ............................................... 95
Unbalanced mixers ........................................................... 95
Single balanced mixers .................................................... 95
Double balanced mixers ................................................... 95
Spurious responses ....................................................... 95
Image ............................................................................... 95
Half IF ............................................................................... 96
IF feedthrough .................................................................. 96
High-order spurs ............................................................... 97
LO harmonic spurs ........................................................... 98
LO noise spurs ................................................................. 98
Mixer distortion products ................................................ 98
Third-order intercept point .............................................. 99
Calculating intercept points ............................................ 101
Mixer losses ................................................................... 101
Noise figure .................................................................... 102
Noise balance ................................................................ 102
Single-ended active mixer circuits .................................. 103
Balanced active mixers .................................................. 104
Gilbert cell mixers ........................................................... 113
Passive double-balanced mixers ................................... 114
Diplexers ........................................................................ 116
Bandpass diplexers ........................................................ 117
Double DBM ................................................................... 5.36
Image reject mixers ........................................................ 5.36
VHF/UHF microwave mixer circuits ............................... 124
6 Oscillators ................................................................ 6
Feedback oscillators ...................................................... 6
General types of RF oscillator circuits ............................ 126
Piezoelectric crystals...................................................... 128
Piezoelectricity ................................................................. 129
Equivalent circuit .............................................................. 129
Crystal packaging ............................................................. 129
Temperature performance ............................................. 133
Room temperature crystal oscillators ............................... 133
Temperature-compensated crystal oscillators .................. 133
Oven-controlled crystal oscillators .................................... 133
Short-term stability ........................................................... 134
Long-term stability ............................................................ 134
Miller oscillators .............................................................. 134
Pierce oscillators ............................................................ 136
Butler oscillators ............................................................. 138
Colpitts oscillators .......................................................... 143
Overtone oscillators ....................................................... 145
Frequency stability ......................................................... 147
Temperature ................................................................... 149
Thermal isolation .............................................................. 149
Avoid self-heating ............................................................. 150
Other stability criteria ..................................................... 150
Use low frequencies ......................................................... 150
Feedback level ................................................................. 150
Output isolation ................................................................ 150
DC power supply .............................................................. 150
Vibration isolation ............................................................. 153
Coil core selection ............................................................ 153
Coil-core processing ......................................................... 153
Air core coils ..................................................................... 154
Capacitor selection ........................................................... 154
Tempco circuit .................................................................. 155
Varactors .......................................................................... 155
Frequency synthesizers ................................................. 157
Reference section ............................................................ 159
Frequency synthesizer section ......................................... 159
Output section .................................................................. 159
Automatic level control (ALC) ........................................... 160
7 IF amplifiers and filters ........................................... 7
IF filters: general filter theory .......................................... 7
LÒ C IF filters ................................................................... 163
Crystal filters .................................................................. 165
Crystal ladder filters ....................................................... 167
Monolithic ceramic crystal filters .................................... 170
Mechanical filters ........................................................... 170
SAW filters ..................................................................... 171
Filter switching in IF amplifiers ....................................... 173
Amplifier circuits ............................................................. 174
Cascode pair amplifier ................................................... 175
˛Universal’ IF amplifier ................................................... 175
Coupling to block filters .................................................. 178
More IC IF amplifiers ...................................................... 179
MC-1590 circuit ................................................................ 179
SL560C circuits ................................................................ 180
FM IF amplifier ............................................................... 180
Successive detection logarithmic amplifiers................... 180
8 Demodulators .......................................................... 8.2
AM envelope detectors .................................................. 8.2
AM noise ........................................................................ 190
Synchronous AM demodulation ..................................... 190
Double sideband (DSBSC) and single sideband
(SSBSC) suppressed carrier demodulators ................... 190
Phasing method ............................................................. 197
FM and PM demodulator circuits ................................... 197
FosterÒ Seeley discriminator ........................................... 197
Ratio detector ................................................................. 200
Pulse counting detector .................................................. 8.23
Phase-locked loop FM/PM detectors ............................. 206
Quadrature detector ....................................................... 206
Part 3 Components ................................................... 3
9 Capacitors ................................................................ 9
Units of capacitance ....................................................... 9
Breakdown voltage......................................................... 211
Circuit symbols for capacitors ........................................ 211
Fixed capacitors ............................................................. 212
Paper dielectric capacitors ............................................. 212
Mylar dielectric capacitors .............................................. 212
Ceramic dielectric capacitors ......................................... 213
Mica dielectric capacitors ............................................... 214
Other capacitors ............................................................. 214
Variable capacitors ......................................................... 215
Air variable main tuning capacitors ................................ 217
Capacitor tuning laws Ò SLC-vs-SLF .............................. 219
Special variable capacitors ............................................ 220
Split stator capacitors ....................................................... 221
Differential capacitors ....................................................... 221
˛TransmittingÌ variable capacitors .................................... 222
Variable capacitor cleaning note .................................... 222
Using and stabilizing a varactor diode ........................... 223
Varactor tuning circuits ................................................... 223
Temperature compensation ........................................... 9.21
Varactor applications...................................................... 230
10 Inductors ................................................................ C
Inductor circuit symbols .................................................. C
Inductance and inductors ............................................... 233
Inductance of a single straight wire ................................ 234
Combining two or more inductors .................................. 235
Air-core inductors ........................................................... 236
Solenoid wound air-core inductors ................................. 237
Adjustable coils .............................................................. 237
Winding your own coils .................................................. 239
Amidon Associates coil system...................................... 239
Using ferrite and powdered iron cores ........................... 240
Materials used in cores .................................................. 240
Powdered iron ................................................................ 241
Ferrite materials ............................................................. 242
Making the calculations .................................................. 242
Toroid cores ................................................................... 244
Example ......................................................................... 246
Inductors and transformers ............................................ 247
Broadband RF transformers ............................................. 249
Winding toroid cores ...................................................... 251
Counting turns .................................................................. 251
Winding styles .................................................................. 252
Stabilizing the windings .................................................... 254
Mounting toroids ............................................................. 254
Mounting multiple coils ..................................................... 254
Special mounting methods ............................................... 256
High-power transformers ................................................ 257
Binocular cores .............................................................. 257
Turns counting on binocular cores ................................... 259
Winding styles on binocular cores .................................... 259
Winding a binocular core .................................................. 260
Ferrite rods ..................................................................... 261
Bobbing along with a bobbin .......................................... 263
Ferrite beads .................................................................. 264
Mounting ferrite beads ...................................................... 266
11 Tuning and matching ............................................ 11
Vectors for RF circuits .................................................... 11
LÒ C resonant tank circuits .............................................. 270
Series resonant circuits .................................................... 270
Parallel resonant circuits .................................................. 271
Tuned RF/IF transformers .............................................. 273
Construction of RF/IF transformers ................................ 274
Bandwidth of RF/IF transformers ................................... 276
Choosing component values for L– C resonant tank
circuits ............................................................................ 279
The tracking problem ..................................................... 281
The RF amplifier/antenna tuner problem ....................... 281
Example ......................................................................... 282
The local oscillator (LO) problem ................................... 283
Trimmer capacitor method ............................................. 284
Impedance matching in RF circuits ................................ 285
Transformer matching .................................................... 286
Resonant transformers ................................................... 287
Resonant networks ........................................................ 288
Inverse-L network ........................................................... 289
-network ......................................................................... 289
Split-capacitor network ................................................... 290
Transistor-to-transistor impedance matching ................. 291
12 Splitters and hybrids ............................................ 12
RF power combiners and splitters .................................. 12
Characteristics of splitter/combiner circuits .................... 12
Resistive splitter/combiner ............................................. 294
Transformer splitter/combiner ........................................ 295
How it works ................................................................... 298
Mismatch losses ............................................................... 298
Modified VSWR bridge splitter/combiner ....................... 299
90 degree splitter/combiner ............................................ 301
Transmission line splitter/combiners .............................. 301
90 degree transmission line splitter/combiner ................ 303
Hybrid ring ˛rat-raceÌ network ......................................... 304
RF hybrid couplers ......................................................... 305
Applications of hybrids ................................................... 306
Combining signal sources .............................................. 306
Bi-directional amplifiers .................................................. 2
Transmitter/receiver isolation ......................................... 2
Quadrature hybrids ........................................................ 2
RF directional couplers .................................................. 312
Conclusion ..................................................................... 316
13 Monolithic microwave integrated circuits .......... 13.1
Internal circuitry .............................................................. 319
Basic amplifier circuit ..................................................... 320
Other MAR-x circuits ...................................................... 321
Multiple device circuits ................................................... 327
Mast-mounted wideband preamplifier ............................ 333
Broadband HF amplifier ................................................. 333
Part 4 Measurement and techniques ...................... 4
14 Measuring inductors and capacitors .................. XC
VSWR method ............................................................... XC
Voltage divider method .................................................. 339
Signal generator method ................................................ 340
Frequency shifted oscillator method .............................. 342
Using RF bridges ........................................................... 344
Maxwell bridge ................................................................. 345
Hay bridge ........................................................................ 346
Schering bridge ................................................................ 347
Finding parasitic capacitances and inductances ............ 347
Conclusion ..................................................................... 350
15 RF power measurement ....................................... 15
Power units .................................................................... 15
Types of RF power measurement .................................. 15
Methods for measuring RF power .................................. 352
Thermistor RF power meters ......................................... 352
Bolometers ....................................................................... 353
Self-balancing bridge instruments .................................... 355
Thermocouple RF power meters ...................................... 356
Diode detector RF power meters ................................... 358
Circuits ............................................................................. 360
Practical in-line bridge circuits ........................................ 360
Micromatch ....................................................................... 15.12
Monomatch ....................................................................... 363
The Bird Thruline sensor ................................................ 364
Calorimeters ................................................................... 366
Substitution flow calorimeters ........................................... 367
Absolute flow calorimeters ............................................... 367
Micropower and low power measurements .................... 370
Error and uncertainty sources ........................................ 372
Mismatch loss and mismatch uncertainty ......................... 372
16 Filtering against EMI/ RFI ..................................... 16
Shielding ........................................................................ 16
Filter circuits ................................................................... 16
RÒ C EMI/RFI protection ................................................. 376
Feedthrough capacitors ................................................. 377
General guidelines ......................................................... 380
17 Noise cancellation bridges ................................... 17
A simple bridge circuit .................................................... 383
Bibliography.............................................................. 1998
Index ..........................................................................353æ5
Foreword

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