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ix1982

MIXED-SIGNAL AND DSP DESIGN TECHNIQUES

[ 本帖最后由 ix1982 于 2008-7-20 16:52 编辑 ]

ix1982

Practical Analog Design Techniques

ix1982

Camenzind: Designing Analog Chips
242页文字版

Table of Contents
Analog World
1 Devices 1-1
Semiconductors 1-1
The Diode 1-5
The Bipolar Transistor 1-6
The Integrated Circuit 1-13
Integrated NPN Transistors 1-14
The Case of the Lateral PNP Transistor 1-22
CMOS Transistors 1-23
The Substrate PNP Transistor 1-27
Diodes 1-27
Zener Diodes 1-28
Resistors 1-29
Capacitors 1-32
Other Processes 1-33
CMOS vs. Bipolar 1-34
2 Simulation 2-1
What You Can Simulate 2-2
DC Analysis 2-2
AC Analysis 2-3
Transient Analysis 2-4
The Big Question of Variations 2-6
Models 2-8
The Diode Model 2-8
The Bipolar Transistor Model 2-10
The Model for the Lateral PNP Transistor 2-13
MOS Transistor Models 2-14
Resistor Models 2-16
Models for Capacitors 2-17
Pads and Pins 2-17
Just How Accurate is a Model? 2-18
3 Current Mirrors 3-1
4 The Royal Differential Pair 4-1
5 Current Sources 5-1
Bipolar 5-1
CMOS 5-7
The Ideal Current Source 5-7
6 Time Out: Analog Measures 6-1
dB 6-1
RMS 6-2
Noise 6-4
Fourier Analysis, Distortion 6-6
Frequency Compensation 6-9
7 Bandgap References 7-1
Camenzind: Designing Analog Chips Table of Contents
Preliminary Edition January 2005 All rights reserved
Low-Voltage Bandgap References 7-11
CMOS Bandgap References 7-13
8 Op Amps 8-1
Bipolar Op-Amps 8-1
CMOS Op-Amps 8-9
Auto-Zero Op-Amps 8-15
9 Comparators 9-1
10 Transconductance Amplifiers 10-1
11 Timers and Oscillators 11-1
Simulation of Oscillators 11-14
LC Oscillators 11-15
Crystal Oscillators 11-16
12 Phase-Locked Loops 12-1
13 Filters 13-1
Active Filters, Low-Pass 13-1
High-Pass Filters 13-6
Band-Pass Filters 13-6
Switched-Capacitor Filters 13-8
14 Power 14-1
Linear Regulators 14-1
Low Drop-Out Regulators 14-4
Switching Regulators 14-8
Linear Power Amplifiers 14-12
Switching Power Amplifiers 14-15
15 A to D and D to A 15-1
Digital to Analog Converters 15-1
Analog to Digital Converters 15-7
The Delta-Sigma Converter 15-8
16 Odds and Ends 16-1
Gilbert Cell 16-1
Multipliers 16-3
Peak Detectors 16-5
Rectifiers and Averaging Circuits 16-7
Thermometers 16-10
Zero-Crossing Detectors 16-12
17 Layout 17-1
Bipolar Transistors 17-1
Lateral PNP Transistors 17-5
Resistors 17-6
CMOS Transistors 17-7
Matching 17-9
Cross-Unders 17-10
Kelvin Connections 17-11
Metal Runs and Ground Connections 17-11
Back-Lapping and Gold-Plating 17-12
DRC and LVS 17-12
References
Index

ix1982

INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS
FOR ENGINEERS, CHEMISTS,
AND TECHNICIANS,
WITH OPTIONAL LAB EXPERIMENTS
Daniel J. Shanefield
RUTGERS UNIVERSITY
Noyes Publications
300页 文字版

CONTENTS
Preface xiii
1. Introduction 1
THE INDUCTIVE, DESTRUCTIVE KICK 1
EXPERIMENTS 2
SAFETY NOTE 4
The Neon Flash 6
The Radio Transmitter Of The Ship Titanic 9
GRADING BY THE INSTRUCTOR 10
ADDITIONAL READING 10
EQUIPMENT NOTES 10
2. Ohm's Law and Measurements 11
THE WATER ANALOG 11
OHM'S LAW 13
FORCE 14
ENERGY 15
FIELD 15
VOLTAGE, THE STRANGE ONE 15
MORE DIMENSIONS, LEADING TO POWER 16
NONLINEAR RESISTANCES 18
THE MULTIMETER 20
EXPERIMENTS 21
Ammeter 21
Voltmeter 24
Ohmmeter 24
EQUIPMENT NOTES 25
v
vi Contents
3. Resistances in Parallel 27
RESISTOR TYPES 27
Methods for Obtaining Resistance 27
Standard RETMA Values 28
Color Coding 29
TWO RESISTORS 30
Water Analog 30
Electrical Example 30
EXPERIMENTS 32
Current 32
Resistance 33
THE AMMETER "SHUNT" 33
EQUIPMENT NOTES 33
4. Series Resistances, I: Bad Output Voltages 35
TWO RESISTORS 35
Water Analog 35
Electrical Example 37
EXPERIMENTS 39
Resistance 39
Current 40
Voltage 41
The Potentiometer 43
LESSONS 45
A Power Source of Exactly 1.00 Volt 45
Bad Batteries 45
The Rheostat 46
High "Upper" Resistance in the Potentiometer 47
EQUIPMENT NOTES 48
5. Series Resistances, II: Bad Measurements 49
EXPERIMENTS 49
THE WHEATSTONE BRIDGE 51
EQUIPMENT NOTES 53
6. Series Resistances, III: Bad Grounds 55
TRUE GROUND 55
STANDARD CONNECTIONS 58
Contents vii
THE CHASSIS 59
EXPERIMENTS 60
Simultaneous Switching Noise ("SSN") 60
Ground Loops 61
GUARDS 64
EQUIPMENT NOTES 64
7. Soldering 65
STRIPPING INSULATION FROM WIRE 65
MAKING A GOOD SOLDER JOINT 66
EQUIPMENT NOTES 69
8. The Oscilloscope 71
WHAT IT IS 71
WHAT IT DOES 73
Internally Timed Horizontal 73
External Signals to the Horizontal and Vertical 75
EXPERIMENTS 75
The Basic Oscilloscope 75
The Sine Wave 77
The SquareWave 79
High Input Resistance and EMI 79
The Twisted Pair 80
Balanced Lines 80
Shielding 81
X Versus Y Inputs 82
The Curve Tracer 83
TELEVISION 85
EQUIPMENT NOTES 87
9. Capacitors 89
WATER ANALOG 89
WHAT A CAPACITOR IS 90
EXPERIMENTS 95
Voltage Versus Time 95
Voltage Versus Current 97
Phase 98
Reactance 99
LOSSLESS CONTROL 102
viii Contents
EQUIPMENT NOTES 102
10. Inductors 103
ELECTROMAGNETS AND GENERATORS 103
EXPERIMENTS 105
Transformers 105
Autotransformers and Inductors 106
Shorted Additional Coil 108
Snubbers 110
Symbols 111
Voltage Versus Current 111
Phase 112
Current Versus Time 113
Reactance 113
Inductance 114
LOSSLESS CONTROL 115
SATURABLE CORES AND MAG-AMPS 115
EQUIPMENT NOTES 115
11. Filters and Resonance 117
SIMPLE RC FILTERS 117
The Decibel (dB) 120
EXPERIMENTS 122
Low-pass RC 122
High-pass RC 123
OTHER FILTERS 123
RL Butterworth Filters 123
Second Order, LC Filters 124
RESONANCE 126
EXPERIMENTS, PART 2 128
Parallel LC Resonator 128
EQUIPMENT NOTES 128
12. Relays 129
WHAT THEY ARE 129
EXPERIMENTS 133
Simple Relay Circuit 133
Timing with the Oscilloscope 133
Positive Feedback and Latching 136
Contents ix
Circuit Breaker 137
Negative Feedback and Oscillation 138
EQUIPMENT NOTES 140
13. Semiconductors 141
WHAT THEY ARE 141
Quantum Mechanics 142
Energy Bands 142
Band Gaps 144
Metals 145
Insulators 145
Dopants 146
14. Diodes 149
WHAT THEY ARE 149
Rectifiers 149
EXPERIMENTS 151
Characteristic Curves 151
Rectification 154
Peak Versus RMS Voltage 155
DIODE BRIDGES 156
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 157
Full Wave Voltage Doubler 157
Voltage Quadrupler 158
DIODE SNUBBERS 159
SOLDERING SEMICONDUCTORS 160
OTHER DIODES 160
Piezoelectric Diodes 163
EQUIPMENT NOTES 164
15. The Bipolar Transistor 165
WHAT IT IS 165
EXPERIMENTS 167
Common Base 167
Common Emitter 168
Regulated Power Supply 170
Gain 172
Nonlinearity 173
Bias 173
x Contents
Darlington Pair with Piezo Sensor 173
EQUIPMENT NOTES 175
16. Sine Wave Oscillators 177
FEEDBACK AND OSCILLATION 177
Phase Shift Oscillator 178
EXPERIMENTS 181
Armstrong Amplifier and Oscillators 181
Colpitts Oscillators 184
Accurate Timing 185
Blocking Oscillator 185
EQUIPMENT NOTES 186
17. Multivibrators 187
WHAT THEY ARE 187
EXPERIMENTS 187
Astable Square Wave Generator 187
Monostable Pulser 189
Bistable Flip-Flop 190
EQUIPMENT NOTES 191
18. FETs and Tubes 193
VACUUM TUBES 193
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS 195
JFETs 195
Constant Current Diode 196
MOSFETs 198
CMOS 199
ESD Sensitivity 200
EXPERIMENT 200
EQUIPMENT NOTES 201
19. Radio and Modulation 203
RADIO WAVES 203
EXPERIMENTS 204
Crystal Radio Receiver 204
Damped Wave Transmitter 206
MODULATION AND DEMODULATION 207
Amplitude Modulated (AM) Transmission 207
Frequency Modulated (FM) Transmission 209
Contents xi
Binary Digital Transmission 209
IMPEDANCE MATCHING AND REFLECTIONS 213
EQUIPMENT NOTES 214
20. Electric Motors 215
WHAT THEY ARE 215
DC Types 215
AC Types 217
Repulsion Motors 217
Induction Motors 218
Methods for Starting 220
THREE PHASE AC 222
21. SCRs and Triacs 227
THROTTLING AC CURRENT 227
EXPERIMENTS 228
Complementary Monostable Pair 228
Schmitt Trigger 230
MONOLITHIC DEVICES 231
PNPN Trigger Diode 231
Silicon Control Rectifier (SCR) 231
Diacs and Triacs 232
EXPERIMENTS, PART 2 233
Relaxation Oscillators 233
Power Controllers 234
PROPORTIONAL CONTROLLERS 236
The Effect of P 238
The Effect of I 238
The Effect of D 238
EQUIPMENT NOTES 239
22. Photonics 241
WHAT IT IS 241
EXPERIMENTS 242
Photons to Electrons and Back Again 242
Electrons to Photons and Back Again 243
Photon-to-Photon Conversions 244
xii Contents
Photocopiers and Laser Printers 246
EQUIPMENT NOTES 248
23. Analog OpAmp ICs 249
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS 249
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS 250
Differential Amplifiers 250
EXPERIMENTS 252
The 386 Op-Amp 252
Breadboard Module 253
EQUIPMENT NOTES 255
24. Digital Microprocessor ICs 257
WHAT THEY ARE 257
EXPERIMENTS 258
Reading Low Level Data Inside the IC Chips 258
Measuring a Resistance with BASIC 259
EQUIPMENT NOTES 259
Equipment List for Entire Course 261
Appendix 265
RESISTIVITIES 265
DIELECTRIC CONSTANTS 266
DIELECTRIC STRENGTHS 267
MAGNETIC PERMEABILITIES 268
VACUUM TUBE CHARACTERISTICS 269
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS 271
BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS 272
Glossary 273
Index 285
GREEK LETTER SUPPLEMENT 302
Examinaton Questions 303
Answers 308

ix1982

Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits  with MATLAB®Applications
Steven T. Karris
629页 文字版 part1和part2

Table of Contents
Chapter 1
Basic Electronic Concepts and Signals
Signals and Signal Classifications .................................................................................................1-1
Amplifiers.....................................................................................................................................1-3
Decibels........................................................................................................................................1-4
Bandwidth and Frequency Response............................................................................................1-5
Bode Plots ....................................................................................................................................1-7
Transfer Function .........................................................................................................................1-9
Poles and Zeros ...........................................................................................................................1-11
Stability ......................................................................................................................................1-12
The Voltage Amplifier Equivalent Circuit .................................................................................1-16
The Current Amplifier Equivalent Circuit.................................................................................1-18
Summary ....................................................................................................................................1-20
Exercises.....................................................................................................................................1-23
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises.......................................................................................1-25
Chapter 2
Introduction to Semiconductor Electronics - Diodes
Electrons and Holes ...................................................................................................................... 2-1
The Junction Diode ...................................................................................................................... 2-4
Graphical Analysis of Circuits with Non-Linear Devices ............................................................ 2-9
Piecewise Linear Approximations .............................................................................................. 2-13
Low Frequency AC Circuits with Junction Diodes .................................................................... 2-15
Junction Diode Applications in AC Circuits ............................................................................. 2-19
Peak Rectifier Circuits ................................................................................................................ 2-28
Clipper Circuits.......................................................................................................................... 2-30
DC Restorer Circuits .................................................................................................................. 2-32
Voltage Doubler Circuits ............................................................................................................ 2-33
Diode Applications in Amplitude Modulation (AM) Detection Circuits ................................. 2-34
Diode Applications in Frequency Modulation (FM) Detection Circuits .................................. 2-35
Zener Diodes.............................................................................................................................. 2-36
The Schottky Diode ................................................................................................................... 2-42
The Tunnel Diode ...................................................................................................................... 2-43
The Varactor .............................................................................................................................. 2-45
Optoelectronic Devices .............................................................................................................. 2-46
ii Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB Applications
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Summary.................................................................................................................................... 2-50
Exercises .................................................................................................................................... 2-54
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises ...................................................................................... 2-59
Chapter 3
Bipolar Junction Transistors
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3-1
NPN Transistor Operation .......................................................................................................... 3-3
The Bipolar Junction Transistor as an Amplifier......................................................................... 3-4
Equivalent Circuit Models - NPN Transistors............................................................................. 3-6
Equivalent Circuit Models - PNP Transistors.............................................................................. 3-7
Effect of Temperature on the - Characteristics............................................................ 3-10
Collector Output Resistance - Early Voltage............................................................................. 3-11
Transistor Amplifier Circuit Biasing .......................................................................................... 3-18
Fixed Bias .................................................................................................................................. 3-21
Self-Bias..................................................................................................................................... 3-25
Amplifier Classes and Operation ............................................................................................... 3-28
Class A Amplifier Operation ..................................................................................................... 3-31
Class B Amplifier Operation...................................................................................................... 3-34
Class AB Amplifier Operation ................................................................................................... 3-35
Class C Amplifier Operation...................................................................................................... 3-37
Graphical Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 3-38
Power Relations in the Basic Transistor Amplifier .................................................................... 3-42
Piecewise-Linear Analysis of the Transistor Amplifier.............................................................. 3-44
Incremental linear models.......................................................................................................... 3-49
Transconductance..................................................................................................................... 3-54
High-Frequency Models for Transistors..................................................................................... 3-55
The Darlington Connection ...................................................................................................... 3-59
Transistor Networks................................................................................................................... 3-61
The h-Equivalent Circuit for the Common-Base Transistor..................................................... 3-61
The T-Equivalent Circuit for the Common-Base Transistor .................................................... 3-64
The h-Equivalent Circuit for the Common-Emitter Transistor ................................................ 3-65
The T-Equivalent Circuit for the Common-Emitter Transistor................................................ 3-70
The h-Equivalent Circuit for the Common-Collector (Emitter-Follower) Transistor.............. 3-70
The T-Equivalent Circuit for the Common-Collector Transistor Amplifier ............................ 3-76
Transistor Cutoff and Saturation Regions ................................................................................. 3-77
Cutoff Region ............................................................................................................................. 3-78
Active Region............................................................................................................................ 3-78
Saturation Region ...................................................................................................................... 3-78
The Ebers-Moll Transistor Model.............................................................................................. 3-80
iC vBE
Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB Applications iii
Orchard Publications
Schottky Diode Clamp ...............................................................................................................3-84
Transistor Specifications.............................................................................................................3-85
Summary ....................................................................................................................................3-86
Exercises.....................................................................................................................................3-90
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises.......................................................................................3-96
Chapter 4
Field Effect Transistors and PNPN Devices
The Junction Field Effect Transistor (JFET)................................................................................ 4-1
The Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET) ........................................4-6
The N-Channel MOSFET in the Enhancement Mode.................................................................4-8
The N-Channel MOSFET in the Depletion Mode.....................................................................4-12
The P-Channel MOSFET in the Enhancement Mode................................................................4-14
The P-Channel MOSFET in the Depletion Mode......................................................................4-17
Voltage Gain ..............................................................................................................................4-17
Complementary MOS (CMOS).................................................................................................4-19
The CMOS Common-Source Amplifier....................................................................................4-20
The CMOS Common-Gate Amplifier .......................................................................................4-20
The CMOS Common-Drain (Source Follower) Amplifier........................................................4-20
The Metal Semiconductor FET (MESFET)...............................................................................4-21
The Unijunction Transistor........................................................................................................4-22
The Diac....................................................................................................................................4-23
The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).....................................................................................4-24
The SCR as an Electronic Switch ..............................................................................................4-27
The SCR in the Generation of Sawtooth Waveforms................................................................4-28
The Triac...................................................................................................................................4-37
The Shockley Diode...................................................................................................................4-38
Other PNPN Devices .................................................................................................................4-40
Summary...................................................................................................................................4-41
Exercises ...................................................................................................................................4-44
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises......................................................................................4-46
Chapter 5
Operational Amplifiers
The Operational Amplifier........................................................................................................... 5-1
An Overview of the Op Amp....................................................................................................... 5-1
The Op Amp in the Inverting Mode............................................................................................ 5-2
The Op Amp in the Non-Inverting Mode ................................................................................... 5-5
Active Filters ...............................................................................................................................5-8
iv Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB Applications
Orchard Publications
Analysis of Op Amp Circuits ..................................................................................................... 5-11
Input and Output Resistances ................................................................................................... 5-22
Op Amp Open Loop Gain ......................................................................................................... 5-25
Op Amp Closed Loop Gain ....................................................................................................... 5-26
Transresistance Amplifier .......................................................................................................... 5-29
Closed Loop Transfer Function ................................................................................................. 5-30
The Op Amp Integrator............................................................................................................. 5-31
The Op Amp Differentiator....................................................................................................... 5-35
Summing and Averaging Op Amp Circuits............................................................................... 5-37
Differential Input Op Amp ........................................................................................................ 5-39
Instrumentation Amplifiers........................................................................................................ 5-42
Offset Nulling............................................................................................................................ 5-44
External Frequency Compensation............................................................................................ 5-45
Slew Rate................................................................................................................................... 5-45
Circuits with Op Amps and Non-Linear Devices...................................................................... 5-46
Comparators ............................................................................................................................... 5-50
Wien Bridge Oscillator............................................................................................................... 5-50
Digital-to-Analog Converters .................................................................................................... 5-52
Analog-to-Digital Converters .................................................................................................... 5-56
The Flash Analog-to-Digital Converter .................................................................................... 5-57
The Successive Approximation Analog-to-Digital Converter .................................................. 5-58
The Dual-Slope Analog-to-Digital Converter........................................................................... 5-59
Quantization, Quantization Error, Accuracy, and Resolution .................................................. 5-61
Op Amps in Analog Computers ................................................................................................ 5-63
Summary.................................................................................................................................... 5-67
Exercises .................................................................................................................................... 5-71
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises ...................................................................................... 5-78
Chapter 6
Integrated Circuits
The Basic Logic Gates.................................................................................................................. 6-1
Positive and Negative Logic......................................................................................................... 6-1
The Inverter ................................................................................................................................ 6-2
The AND Gate ............................................................................................................................ 6-6
The OR Gate............................................................................................................................... 6-8
The NAND Gate ......................................................................................................................... 6-9
The NOR Gate........................................................................................................................... 6-13
The Exclusive OR (XOR) and Exclusive NOR (XNOR) Gates............................................... 6-15
Fan-In, Fan-Out, TTL Unit Load, Sourcing Current, and Sinking Current ............................ 6-17
Data Sheets ............................................................................................................................... 6-20
Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB Applications v
Orchard Publications
Emitter Coupled Logic (ECL)..................................................................................................... 6-24
NMOS Logic Gates .................................................................................................................... 6-28
The NMOS Inverter................................................................................................................... 6-31
The NMOS NAND Gate........................................................................................................... 6-31
The NMOS NOR Gate .............................................................................................................. 6-32
CMOS Logic Gates..................................................................................................................... 6-32
The CMOS Inverter ................................................................................................................... 6-33
The CMOS NAND Gate ........................................................................................................... 6-34
The CMOS NOR Gate .............................................................................................................. 6-35
Buffers, Tri-State Devices, and Data Buses................................................................................ 6-35
Present and Future Technologies ............................................................................................... 6-39
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 6-43
Exercises..................................................................................................................................... 6-46
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises....................................................................................... 6-49
Chapter 7
Pulse Circuits and Waveform Generators
Astable (Free-Running) Multivibrators........................................................................................ 7-1
The 555 Timer............................................................................................................................. 7-2
Astable Multivibrator with the 555 Timer ................................................................................... 7-3
Monostable Multivibrators ......................................................................................................... 7-15
Bistable Multivibrators (Flip-Flops)............................................................................................ 7-18
The Fixed-Bias Flip-Flop ............................................................................................................ 7-19
The Self-Bias Flip-Flop ............................................................................................................... 7-22
Triggering Signals for Flip-Flops ................................................................................................. 7-28
Present Technology Bistable Multivibrators .............................................................................. 7-30
The Schmitt Trigger ................................................................................................................... 7-30
Summary .................................................................................................................................... 7-33
Exercises..................................................................................................................................... 7-34
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises....................................................................................... 7-37
Chapter 8
Frequency Characteristics of Single-Stage and Cascaded Amplifiers
Properties of Signal Waveforms.................................................................................................... 8-1
The Transistor Amplifier at Low Frequencies.............................................................................. 8-5
The Transistor Amplifier at High Frequencies ............................................................................ 8-9
Combined Low- and High-Frequency Characteristics ............................................................... 8-14
Frequency Characteristics of Cascaded Amplifiers .................................................................... 8-14
Overall Characteristics of Multistage Amplifiers ....................................................................... 8-26
vi Electronic Devices and Amplifier Circuits with MATLAB Applications
Orchard Publications
Amplification and Power Gain in Three or More Cascaded Amplifiers ................................... 8-32
Summary.................................................................................................................................... 8-34
Exercises .................................................................................................................................... 8-36
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises ...................................................................................... 8-39
Chapter 9
Tuned Amplifiers
Introduction to Tuned Circuits ....................................................................................................9-1
Single-tuned Transistor Amplifier ................................................................................................9-8
Cascaded Tuned Amplifiers........................................................................................................9-14
Synchronously Tuned Amplifiers................................................................................................9-15
Stagger-Tuned Amplifiers ...........................................................................................................9-19
Three or More Tuned Amplifiers Connected in Cascade ..........................................................9-27
Summary.....................................................................................................................................9-29
Exercises .....................................................................................................................................9-31
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .......................................................................................9-32
Chapter 10
Sinusoidal Oscillators
Introduction to Oscillators......................................................................................................... 10-1
Sinusoidal Oscillators................................................................................................................. 10-1
RC Oscillator............................................................................................................................. 10-4
LC Oscillators............................................................................................................................ 10-5
The Armstrong Oscillator.......................................................................................................... 10-6
The Hartley Oscillator ............................................................................................................... 10-7
The Colpitts Oscillator .............................................................................................................. 10-7
Crystal Oscillators ...................................................................................................................... 10-8
The Pierce Oscillator ............................................................................................................... 10-10
Summary.................................................................................................................................. 10-12
Exercises .................................................................................................................................. 10-14
Solutions to End-of-Chapter Exercises .................................................................................... 10-15
Appendix A

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ix1982

802.11® Wireless Networks: The Definitive Guide
By Matthew Gast
Publisher : O'Reilly
Pub Date : April 2002
ISBN : 0-596-00183-5
Pages : 464 文字版

Copyright
Preface
Prometheus Untethered: The Possibilities of Wireless LANs
Audience
Overture for Book in Black and White, Opus 2
Conventions Used in This Book
How to Contact Us
Acknowledgments
Chapter 1. Introduction to Wireless Networks
Section 1.1. Why Wireless?
Section 1.2. A Network by Any Other Name...
Chapter 2. Overview of 802.11 Networks
Section 2.1. IEEE 802 Network Technology Family Tree
Section 2.2. 802.11 Nomenclature and Design
Section 2.3. 802.11 Network Operations
Section 2.4. Mobility Support
Chapter 3. The 802.11 MAC
Section 3.1. Challenges for the MAC
Section 3.2. MAC Access Modes and Timing
Section 3.3. Contention-Based Access Using the DCF
Section 3.4. Fragmentation and Reassembly
Section 3.5. Frame Format
Section 3.6. Encapsulation of Higher-Layer Protocols Within 802.11
Section 3.7. Contention-Based Data Service
Chapter 4. 802.11 Framing in Detail
Section 4.1. Data Frames
Section 4.2. Control Frames
Section 4.3. Management Frames
Section 4.4. Frame Transmission and Association and Authentication States
Chapter 5. Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP)
Section 5.1. Cryptographic Background to WEP
Section 5.2. WEP Cryptographic Operations
Section 5.3. Problems with WEP
Section 5.4. Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter 6. Security, Take 2: 802.1x
Section 6.1. The Extensible Authentication Protocol
Section 6.2. 802.1x: Network Port Authentication
Section 6.3. 802.1x on Wireless LANs
Chapter 7. Management Operations
Section 7.1. Management Architecture
Section 7.2. Scanning
Section 7.3. Authentication
Section 7.4. Association
Section 7.5. Power Conservation
Section 7.6. Timer Synchronization
Chapter 8. Contention-Free Service with the PCF
Section 8.1. Contention-Free Access Using the PCF
Section 8.2. Detailed PCF Framing
Section 8.3. Power Management and the PCF
Chapter 9. Physical Layer Overview
Section 9.1. Physical-Layer Architecture
Section 9.2. The Radio Link
Section 9.3. RF and 802.11
Chapter 10. The ISM PHYs: FH, DS, and HR/DS
Section 10.1. 802.11 FH PHY
Section 10.2. 802.11 DS PHY
Section 10.3. 802.11b: HR/DSSS PHY
Chapter 11. 802.11a: 5-GHz OFDM PHY
Section 11.1. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Section 11.2. OFDM as Applied by 802.11a
Section 11.3. OFDM PLCP
Section 11.4. OFDM PMD
Section 11.5. Characteristics of the OFDM PHY
Chapter 12. Using 802.11 on Windows
Section 12.1. Nokia C110/C111
Section 12.2. Lucent ORiNOCO
Chapter 13. Using 802.11 on Linux
Section 13.1. A Few Words on 802.11 Hardware
Section 13.2. PCMCIA Support on Linux
Section 13.3. linux-wlan-ng for Intersil-Based Cards
Section 13.4. Agere (Lucent) Orinoco
Chapter 14. Using 802.11 Access Points
Section 14.1. General Functions of an Access Point
Section 14.2. ORiNOCO (Lucent) AP-1000 Access Point
Section 14.3. Nokia A032 Access Point
Chapter 15. 802.11 Network Deployment
Section 15.1. The Topology Archetype
Section 15.2. Project Planning
Section 15.3. The Site Survey
Section 15.4. Installation and the Final Rollout
Chapter 16. 802.11 Network Analysis
Section 16.1. Why Use a Network Analyzer?
Section 16.2. 802.11 Network Analyzers
Section 16.3. Commercial Network Analyzers
Section 16.4. Ethereal
Section 16.5. 802.11 Network Analysis Examples
Section 16.6. AirSnort
Chapter 17. 802.11 Performance Tuning
Section 17.1. Tuning Radio Management
Section 17.2. Tuning Power Management
Section 17.3. Timing Operations
Section 17.4. Physical Operations
Section 17.5. Summary of Tunable Parameters
Chapter 18. The Future, at Least for 802.11
Section 18.1. Current Standards Work
Section 18.2. The Longer Term
Section 18.3. The End
Appendix A. 802.11 MIB
Section A.1. The Root of the Matter
Section A.2. Station Management
Section A.3. MAC Management
Section A.4. Physical-Layer Management
Appendix B. 802.11 on the Macintosh
Section B.1. The AirPort Card
Section B.2. The AirPort Base Station
Section B.3. Links to More Information

[ 本帖最后由 ix1982 于 2008-7-20 16:51 编辑 ]

ix1982

An Introduction to Mixed -Signal I C Test and Measurement
Mark Burns
Texas Instruments, Incorporated
Gordon W. Roberts
McGill University
683页 文字版


PREFACE xvii
1.1 MIXED-SIGNAL CIRCUITS 1
1.1.1 Analog, Digital, or Mixed-Signal? 1
1.1.2 Common Types of Analog and Mixed-Signal Circuits
1.1.3 Applicationso f Mixed-SignaCl ircuits 3
1.2 WHY TEST MIXED-SIGNAL DEVICES? 5
1.2.1 The CMOS FabricationP rocess 5
1.2.2 Real-WorldCircuits 5
1.2.3 What Is a Test Engineer? 8
1.3 POST-SILICON PRODUCTION FLOW 10
1.3.1 Test and Packaging 10
1.3.2 Characterizatiovne rsusP roductionT esting 11
1.4 TEST AND DIAGNOSTIC EQUIPMENT 11
1.4.1 Automated Test Equipment 11
1.4.2 Wafer Probers 13
1.4.3 Handlers 13
1.4.4 E-Beam Probers 14
1.4.5 FocusedIo n BeamE quipment 15
1.4.6 Forced-TemperatuSrey stems 15
1.5 NEW PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT 16
1.5.1 ConcurrenEt ngineering 16
1.6 MIXED-SIGNAL TESTING CHALLENGES 17
1.6.1 Time to Market 18
1.6.2 Accuracy,R epeatabilitya, ndC orrelation 18
1.6.3 ElectromechanicaFli xturingC hallenges 18
1.6.4 Economicso f ProductionT esting 19
Chapter 2: The Test Specification Process
2.1 DEVICE DATA SHEETS 23
2.1.1 Purposeo f a DataS heet 23
2.1.2 Structure of a Data Sheet 24
2.1.3 Electrical Characteristics 27
2.2 GENERATING THE TEST PLAN 31
2.2.1 To Plan or Not to Plan 31
v
vi Contents
2.2.2 Structure of a Test Plan 35
2.2.3 DesignS pecificationvse rsusP roductionT estS pecifications 36
2.2.4 Convertingt he DataS heetin to a Test Plan 37
2.3 COMPONENTS OF A TEST PROGRAM 38
2.3.1 Test Program Structure 38
2.3.2 Test Code and Digital Patterns 38
2.3.3 Binning 40
2.3.4 Test SequencCe ontrol 40
2.3.5 WaveformC alculationsa ndO therI nitializations 41
2.3.6 FocusedC alibrationsa ndD IB Checkers 41
2.3.7 CharacterizatioCn ode 42
2.3.8 Simulation Code 42
2.3.9 "Debuggability" 42
2.4 SUMMARY 43
Chapter 3: DC and Parametric Measurements
3.1 CONTINUITY 45
3.1.1 Purposeo f ContinuityT esting 45
3.1.2 Continuity Test Technique 46
3.1.3 Serial versus Parallel Continuity Testing 48
3.2 LEAKAGE CURRENTS 50
3.2.1 Purposeo f LeakageT esting 50
3.2.2 Leakage Test Technique 50
3.2.3 Serialv ersusP arallelL eakageT esting 51
3.3 POWER SUPPLY CURRENTS 51
3.3.1 hnportanceo f SupplyC urrentT ests 51
3.3.2 Test Techniques 51
3.4 DC REFERENCES AND REGULATORS 52
3.4.1 Voltage Regulators 52
3.4.2 Voltage References 55
3.4.3 Trirnmable References 55
3.5 IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENTS 56
3.5.1 Input hnpedance 56
3.5.2 Output hnpedance 58
3.5.3 Differential hnpedanceM easurements 59
3.6 DC OFFSET MEASUREMENTS 60
3.6.1 VMIDa ndA nalogG round 60
3.6.2 DC TransferC haracteristic(sG ain andO ffset) 60
3.6.3 OutputOffsetVoltage(Vo) 61
3.6.4 Single-EndedD, ifferential,a ndC ommon-ModeO ffsets 62
3.6.5 Input Offset Voltage (V os) 64
3.7 DC GAIN MEASUREMENTS 65
3.7.1 Closed-LoopG ain 65
3.7.2 Open-Loop Gain 68
3.8 DC POWER SUPPLY REJECTION RATIO 71
3.8.1 DC Power Supply Sensitivity 71
3.8.2 DC Power Supply Rejection Ratio 72
Contents vii
3.9 DC COMMON-MODE REJECTION RATIO 72
3.9.1 CMRRofOpAmps 72
3.9.2 CMRR of Differential Gain Stages 75
3.10 COMPARATOR DC TESTS 77
3.10.1 Input Offset Voltage 77
3.10.2 Thresho1dVoltage 78
3.10.3 Hysteresis 78
3.11 VOLTAGE SEARCH TECHNIQUES 79
3.11.1 Binary Searchevse rsusS tepS earches 79
3.11.2 Linear Searches 80
3.12 DC TESTS FOR DIGJTAL CIRCUITS 82
3.12.1 4H/4L 82
3.12.2 VldV/L 82
3.12.3 VaN/VoL 82
3.12.4 IoH/loL 82
3.12.5 IoSHa ndI osLS hortC ircuit Current 82
3.13 SUMMARY 83
Chapter 4: Measurement Accuracy
4.1 TERMINOLOGY 87
4.1.1 Accuracy and Precision 87
4.1.2 SystematicE rrors 88
4.1.3 Random Errors 88
4.1.4 Resolution( QuantizationE rror) 88
4.1.5 Repeatability 89
4.1.6 Stability 90
4.1.7 Correlation 91
4.1.8 Reproducibility 92
4.2 CALIBRATIONS AND CHECKERS 93
4.2.1 Traceability to Standards 93
4.2.2 Hardware Calibration 93
4.2.3 Software Calibration 93
4.2.4 SystemC alibrationsa ndC heckers 96
4.2.5 FocusedIn strumenCt alibrations 97
4.2.6 FocusedD IB Circuit Calibrations 101
4.2.7 DIB Checkers 102
4.2.8 Tester Specifications 103
4.3 DEALING WITH MEASUREMENT ERROR 106
4.3.1 Filtering 106
4.3.2 Averaging 111
4.3.3 Guardbanding 113
4.4 BASIC DATA ANALYSIS 114
4.4.1 Datalogs 114
4.4.2 Histograms 115
4.4.3 Noise, Test Time, and Yield 118
4.5 SUMMARY 120
viii Contents
Chapter 5: Tester Hardware
5.1 MIXED-SIGNAL TESTER OVERVIEW 123
5.1.1 General-PurposTee stersv ersusF ocusedB enchE quipment 123
5.1.2 Generic Tester Architecture 123
5.2 DC RESOURCES 125
5.2.1 General-PurposMeu 1timeters 125
5.2.2 General-PurposVeo ltage/CurrenSt ources 127
5.2.3 PrecisionV oltageR eferenceasn dU serS upplies 128
5.2.4 Calibration Source 128
5.2.5 Relay Matrices 128
5.2.6 Relay Control Lines 130
5.3 DIGITAL SUBSYSTEM 131
5.3.1 Digital Vectors 131
5.3.2 Digital Signals 131
5.3.3 Source Memory 132
5.3.4 Capture Memory 132
5.3.5 Pin Card Electronics 134
5.3.6 Timing andF ormattingE lectronics 136
5.4 AC SOURCE AND MEASUREMENT 139
5.4.1 AC ContinuousW aveS ourcea ndA C Meter 139
5.4.2 Arbitrary Waveform Generators 139
5.4.3 Waveform Digitizers 140
5.4.4 Clocking and Synchronization 141
5.5 TIME MEASUREMENT SYSTEM 141
5.5.1 Time Measurements 141
5.5.2 Time MeasuremenInt terconnects 142
5.6 COMPUTING HARDWARE 143
5.6.1 User Computer 143
5.6.2 Tester Computer 144
5.6.3 Array Processorasn dD istributedD igital SignalP rocessors 144
5.6.4 Network Connectivity 144
5.7 SUMMARY 144
Chapter 6: Sampling Theory
6.1 ANALOG MEASUREMENTS USING DSP 147
6.1.1 Traditionalv ersusD SP-BaseTd estingo f AC Parameters 147
6.2 SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION 148
6.2.1 Use of Samplinga ndR econstructionin Mixed-SignaTl esting 148
6.2.2 Sampling:C ontinuous-Timaen dD iscrete-TimeR epresentation 149
6.2.3 Reconstruction 152
6.2.4 The Sampling Theorem and Aliasing 159
6.2.5 QuantizationE ffects 161
6.2.6 Sampling Jitter 166
6.3 REPETITIVE SAMPLE SETS 170
6.3.1 Finite and Infmite Sample Sets 170
6.3.2 CoherentS ignalsa ndN oncoherenSt ignals 171
Contents ix
6.3.3 Peak-to-RMSC ontroli n CoherenMt ultitones 173
6.3.4 Spectral Bin Selection 175
6.4 SYNCHRONIZATION OF SAMPLING SYSTEMS 179
6.4.1 SimultaneouTs estingo f Multiple SamplingS ystems 179
6.4.2 ATE Clock Sources 181
6.4.3 The Challengeo f Synchronization 183
6.S SUMMARY 184
Chapter 7: DSP-Based Testing
7.1 ADVANTAGES OF DSP-BASED TESnNG 189
7.1.1 ReducedTestTime 189
7.1.2 Separationo f SignalC omponents 189
7.1.3 Advanced Signal Manipulations 190
7.2 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING 190
7.2.1 DSP and Array Processing 190
7.2.2 Fourier Analysis of Periodic Signals 191
7.2.3 The TrigonometricF ourierS eries 192
7.2.4 The Discrete-TimeF ourierS eries 195
7.2.5 CompleteF requencyS pectrum 205
7.2.6 Time andF requencyD enormalization 210
7.2.7 Complex Form of the DTFS 211
7.3 DISCRETE-TIME TRANSFORMS 213
7.3.1 The Discrete Fourier Transform 213
7.3.2 The Fast Fourier Transform 216
7.3.3 Interpretingt he FFT Output 218
7.4 THE INVERSE FFT 230
7.4.1 Equivalenceo f Time- andF requency-DomaiInn formation 230
7.4.2 Parseval'sT heorem 232
7.4.3 Applications of the Inverse FFT 233
7.4.4 Frequency-DomaiFni ltering 234
7.4.5 Noise Weighting 239
7.5 SUMMARY 240
APPENDIXA.7.1 241
~
Chapter 8: Analog Channel Testing
8.1 OVERVIEW 249
8.1.1 Types of Analog Channels 249
8.1.2 Typeso f AC ParametricT ests 250
8.1.3 Review of Logarithmic Operations 250
8.2 GAIN AND LEVEL TESTS 251
8.2.1 Absolute Voltage Levels 251
8.2.2 Absolute Gain and Gain Error 256
8.2.3 Gain Tracking Error 258
8.2.4 PGA Gain Tests 260
8.2.5 FrequencyR esponse 265
x Contents
8.3 PHASE TESTS 273
8.3.1 PhaseR esponse 273
8.3.2 Group Delay and Group Delay Distortion 278
8.4 DISTORTION TESTS 280
8.4.1 Signal to Hannonic Distortion 280
8.4.2 InteTnlodulatioDn istortion 283
8.5 SIGNAL REJECTION TESTS 284
8.5.1 Common-ModeR ejectionR atio 284
8.5.2 Power Supply Rejection and Power Supply Rejection Ratio 287
8.5.3 Channel-to-ChannCelr osstalk 289
8.5.4 Clock and Data Feedthrough 293
8.6 NOISE TESTS 293
8.6.1 Noise 293
8.6.2 Idle ChanneNl oise 294
8.6.3 Signal to Noise, Signal to Noise and Distortion 296
8.6.4 SpuriousF reeD ynamicR ange 298
8.6.5 Weighting Filters 300
8.7 SIMULA nON OF ANALOG CHANNEL TESTS 304
8.7.1 MATLAB Model of an Analog Channel 304
8.8 SUMMARY 308
Chapter 9: Sampled Channel Testing
9.1 OVERVIEW 315
9.1.1 WhatAreSampledChannels? 315
9.1.2 Exampleso f SampledC hannels 315
9.1.3 Typeso f SampledC hannels 318
9.2 SAMPLING CONSmERATIONS 320
9.2.1 DUT Sampling Rate Constraints 320
9.2.2 Digital SignalS ourcea ndC apture 321
9.2.3 SimultaneouDs AC andA DC ChanneTl esting 326
9.2.4 MismatchedF undamentaFl requencies 330
9.2.5 Undersampling 333
9.2.6 ReconstructionE ffectsi n A WGs,D ACs, andO therS ampled-DatCa ircuits 335
9.3 ENCODING AND DECODING 338
9.3.1 Signal Creation and Analysis 338
9.3.2 Data Formats 339
9.3.3 Intrinsic Errors 344
9.4 SAMPLED CHANNEL TESTS 350
9.4.1 Similarity to Analog Channel Tests 350
9.4.2 Absolute Level, Absolute Gain, Gain Error, and Gain Tracking 351
9.4.3 FrequencyR esponse 356
9.4.4 PhaseR esponse(A bsoluteP haseS hift) 359
9.4.5 Group Delay and Group Delay Distortion 360
9.4.6 Signalt o HarmonicD istortion,I ntermodulationD istortion 360
9.4.7 Crosstalk 361
9.4.8 CMRR 362
Contents xi
9.4.9 PSRandPSRR 362
9.4.10 Signal-to-NoiseR atioa ndE NOB 363
9.4.11 Idle ChanneNl oise 363
9.S SUMMARY 364
Chapter 10: Focused Calibrations
10.1 OVERVIEW 369
10.1.1 Traceability to National Standards 369
10.1.2 Why Are FocusedC alibrationsN eeded? 370
10.1.3 Typeso f FocusedC alibrations 372
10.1.4 Mechanicso f FocusedC alibration 372
10.1.5 Program Structure 375
10.2 DC CALIBRAllONS 376
10.2.1 DC Offset Calibration 376
10.2.2 DC Gain and Offset Calibrations 378
10.2.3 CascadingD C Offseta ndG ain Calibrations 380
10.3 AC AMPLITUDE CALIBRATIONS 382
10.3.1 Calibrating AWGs and Digitizers 382
10.3.2 Low-Level A WG and Digitizer Amplitude Calibrations 389
10.3.3 AmplitudeC alibrationsfo r ADC andD AC Tests 390
10.4 OTHER AC CALIBRATIONS 392
10.4.1 Phase Shifts 392
10.4.2 Digitizer and A WG Synchronization 396
10.4.3 DAC andA DC PhaseS hifts 396
10.4.4 Distortion Tests 396
10.4.5 Noise Tests 397
10.5 ERROR CANCELLATION TECHNIQUES 397
10.5.1 Avoiding Absolute Calibration 397
10.5.2 Gain andP haseM atching 397
10.5.3 Differential Gain and Differential Phase 399
10.6 SUMMARY 400
Chapter 11: DAC Testing
11.1 BASICS OF CONVERTER TESTING 403
11.1.1 Intrinsic Parametervse rsusT ransmissionP arameters 403
11.1.2 Comparisono fDACs andA DCs 404
11.1.3 DACFai1ureMechanisrns 405
11.2 BASIC DC TESTS 405
11.2.1 Code-SpecificP arameters 405
11.2.2 Full-Scale Range 406
11.2.3 DC Gain, Gain Error, Offset, and Offset Error 406
11.2.4 LSB Step Size 409
11.2.5 DCPSS 410
11.3 TRANSFER CURVE TESTS 410
11.3.1 Absolute Error 410
11.3.2 Monotonicity 412
xii Contents
11.3.3 DifferentialNon1inearity 412
11.3.4 Integra1Nonlinearity 416
11.3.5 Partial Transfer Curves 419
11.3.6 Major Carrier Testing 420
11.3.7 OtherS elected-CodTee chniques 423
11.4 DYNAMIC DAC TESTS 424
11.4.1 ConversionT ime (SettlingT ime) 424
11.4.2 Overshooat ndU ndershoot 426
11.4.3 Rise Time and Fall Time 426
11.4.4 DAC-to-DAC Skew 426
11.4.5 Glitch Energy (Glitch Impulse) 427
11.4.6 Clock and Data Feedthrough 428
11.5 DAC ARCHITECTURES 428
11.5.1 ResistiveDividerDACs 428
11.5.2 Binary-WeightedDACs 430
11.5.3 PWMDACs 431
11.5.4 Sigma-DeltaD ACs 433
11.5.5 CompandedD ACs 434
11.5.6 Hybrid DAC Architectures 435
11.6 TESTS FOR COMMON DAC APPLICAnONS 435
11.6.1 DC References 435
11.6.2 Audio Reconstruction 436
11.6.3 Data Modulation 436
11.6.4 Video Signal Generators 436
11.7 SUMMARY 437
APPENDIXA.ll.l 437
Chapter 12: ADC Testing
12.1 ADC TESTING VERSUS DAC TESTING 447
12.1.1 ComparisonofDACsandADCs 447
12.1.2 StatisticalB ehavioro f ADCs 448
12.2 ADC CODE EDGE MEASUREMENTS 454
12.2.1 Edge Code Testing versus Center Code Testing 454
12.2.2 StepS earcha ndB inary SearchM ethods 455
12.2.3 Servo Method 455
12.2.4 Linear RampH istogramM ethod 456
12.2.5 Conversionfr om Histogramsto CodeE dgeT ransferC urves 457
12.2.6 Accuracy Limitations of Histogram Testing 460
12.2.7 Rising Ramps versus Falling Ramps 461
12.2.8 SinusoidaHl istogramM ethod 462
12.3 DC TESTS AND TRANSFER CURVE TESTS 467
12.3.1 DC Gain and Offset 467
12.3.2 INL and DNL 468
12.3.3 Monotonicity and Missing Codes 469
12.4 DYNAMIC ADC TESTS 470
12.4.1 ConversionT ime, RecoveryT ime, and SamplingF requency 470
12.4.2 Aperture Jitter 472
12.4.3 Sparkling 472
Contents xiii
12.5 ADC ARCmTECTURES 473
12.5.1 SuccessivAe pproximationA rchitectures 473
12.5.2 IntegratingA DCs (Dual-Slopea ndS ingle-Slope) 474
12.5.3 Flash ADCs 475
12.5.4 SemiflashA DCs 476
12.5.5P DM (Sigma-DeltaA) DCs 477
12.6 TESTS FOR COMMON ADC APPLICATIONS 479
12.6.1 DC Measurements 479
12.6.2 Audio Digitization 479
12.6.3 Data Transmission 479
12.6.4 Video Digitization 480
12.7 SUMMARY 480
13: DIB Design
13.1 DIB BASICS 483
13.1.1 Purposeo f a DeviceI nterfaceB oard 483
13.1.2 Dffi Configurations 484
13.1.3 Importanceo f GoodD IB Design 486
13.2 PRINTED CIRCillT BOARDS 486
13.2.1 Prototype DIBs versus PCB Dffis 486
13.2.2 PCB CAD Tools 487
13.2.3 Multilayer PCBs 488
13.2.4 PCB Materials 489
13.3 DIB TRACES, SHIELDS, AND GUARDS 490
13.3.1 Trace Parasitics 490
13.3.2 Trace Resistance 490
13.3.3 Trace Inductance 491
13.3.4 Trace Capacitance 496
13.3.5 Shielding 502
13.3.6 Driven Guards 503
13.4 TRANSMISSION LINES 504
13.4.1 Lumped-a ndD istributed-ElemenMt odels 504
13.4.2T ransmissionL ine Termination 508
13.4.3P arasiticL umpedE lements 514
13.5 GROUNDING AND POWER DISTRIBUTION 514
13.5.1 Grounding 514
13.5.2 Power Distribution 516
13.5.3 Power and Ground Planes 517
13.5.4 Ground Loops 518
13.6 DIB COMPONENTS 519
13.6.1D UT Socketsa ndC ontactorA ssemblies 519
13.6.2 Contact Pads, Pogo Pins, and Socket Pins 520
13.6.3 ElectromechanicaRle lays 521
13.6.4 Socket Pins 524
13.6.5 Resistors 525
13.6.6 Capacitors 526
13.6.7 Inductors and Ferrite Beads 528
13.6.8T ransformersa ndP owerS plitters 528
xiv Contents
13.7 COMMON DIB CIRCUITS 530
13.7.1 Local Relay Connections 530
13.7.2 Relay Multiplexers 532
13.7.3 SelectableL oads 533
13.7.4 Analog Buffers (Voltage Followers) 533
13.7.5 InstrumentatioAn mplifiers 534
13.7.6 VMIDR eferenceA dder 535
13.7.7 Current-toV- oltagea ndV oltage-to-CurrenCt onversions 536
13.7.8 Power Supply Ripple Circuits 536
13.8 COMMON DIB MISTAKES 540
13.8.1 Poor Power Supply and Ground Layout 540
13.8.2 Crosstalk 541
13.8.3 TransmissionL ine Discontinuities 541
13.8.4 Resistive Drops in Circuit Traces 541
13.8.5 TesterI nstrumenPt arasitics 541
13.8.6 Oscillationsin Active Circuits 542
13.8.7 PoorD IB ComponenPt lacemenat ndP CB Layout 542
13.9 SUMMARY 543
APPENDIX A.13.1 543
Chapter 14: Design for Test (Dff)
14.1 OVERVIEW 549
14.1.1 What Is Dff? 549
14.1.2 Built-In Self-Test 550
14.1.3 Differencesb etweenD igital Dff andA nalogD ff 550
14.1.4 Why Should We Use Dff? 551
14.2 ADV ANT AGES OF Dff 551
14.2.1 Lower Cost of Test 551
14.2.2 IncreasedF ault Coveragea ndh nprovedP rocessC ontrol 553
14.2.3 Diagnosticsa ndC haracterization 553
14.2.4 Easeo f TestP rogramD evelopment 554
14.2.5 System-LeveDl iagnostics 555
14.2.6 Economicso fDff 555
14.3 DIGITAL SCAN 556
14.3.1 Scan Basics 556
14.3.2 IEEE Std. 1149.1S tandardT estA ccessP ort andB oundaryS can 557
14.3.3 Full Scan and Partial Scan 559
14.4 DIGITALBIST 562
14.4..1P seudorandomBI LBO Circuits 562
14.4.2 Memory BIST 563
14.4.3 Microcode BIST 564
14.5 DIGITAL Dff FOR MIXED-SIGNAL CIRCUITS 565
14.5.1 Partitioning 565
14.5.2 Digital Resetsa ndP resets 566
14.5.3 Device-DrivenT iming 567
14.5.4 Lengthy Preambles 569
14.6 MIXED-SIGNAL BOUNDARY SCAN AND BIST 569
14.6.1 Mixed-Signal Boundary Scan (IEEE Std. 1149.4) 569
Contents
575
14.6.2 Analog and Mixed-Signal BIST 571
14.7 AD HOC MIXED-SIGNAL Dff 573
14.7.1 Common Concepts 573
14.7.2 Accessibility of Analog Signals 573
14.7.3 Analog Test Buses, T -Switches, and Bypass Modes
14.7.4 Separation of Analog and Digital Blocks 577
14.7.5 Loopback Modes 579
14.7.6 Precharging Circuits and AC Coupling Shorts 580
14.7.7 On-Chip Sampling Circuits 581
14.7.8 PLLTestabilityCircuits 583
14.7.9 DAC and ADC Converters 584
14.7.10 Oscillation BIST 585
14.7.11 Physical Test Pads 585
14.8 SUBTLE FORMS OF ANALOG Dff 585
14.8.1 Robust Circuits 585
14.8.2 Design Margin as Dff 586
14.8.3 Avoiding Overspecification 586
14.8.4 Predictability of Failure Mechanisms 586
14.8.5 Conversion of Analog Functions to Digital 587
14.8.6 Reduced Tester Performance Requirements 587
14.8.7 Avoidance of Trim Requirements 587
14.9 IDDQ 587
14.9.1 Digital IDDQ 587
14.9.2 Analog and Mixed-Signal IDDQ 588
14.10 SUMMARY 589
APPENDIX A.14.1 589
Chapter 15: Data Analysis
15.1 INTRODUCTION TO DATA ANALYSIS 597
15.1.1 The Role of Data Analysis in Test and Product Engineering 597
15.1.2 Visualizing Test Results 597
15.2 DATA VISUALIZATION TOOLS 598
15.2.1 Data1ogs (Data Lists) 598
15.2.2 Lot Summaries 599
15.2.3 Wafer Maps 600
15.2.4 Shrnoo Plots 601
15.2.5 Histograms 604
15.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 606
15.3.1 Mean (Average) and Standard Deviation (Variance) 606
15.3.2 Probabi1ites and Probability Density Functions 607
15.3.3 The Standard Gaussian Cumulative Distribution Function <I&raquo;(z) 611
15.3.4 Non-Gaussian Distributions 615
15.3.5 Guardbanding and Gaussian Statistics 618
15.3.6 Effects of Measurement Variability on Test Yield 620
15.3.7 Effects of Reproducibi1ty and Process Variation on Yield 623
15.4 STATISnCAL PROCESS CONTROL 627
15.4.1 Goals ofSPC 627
15.4.2 Six-Sigma Quality 628
xvi Contents
15.4.3 ProcessC apability,C p,a ndC pt 628
15.4.4 GaugeR epeatabilitya ndR eproducibility 630
15.4.5 Pareto Charts 631
15.4.6 Scatter Plots 631
15.4.7 Control Charts 633
15.5 SUMMARY 634
Chapter 16: Test Economics
16.1 PROFITABILITY FACTORS 641
16.1.1 What Is Meant by Test Economics? 641
16.1.2 Time to Market 641
16.1.3 Testing Costs 642
16.1.4 Yield Enhancement 642
16.2 DIRECT TESTING COSTS 643
16.2.1 Cost Models 643
16.2.2 Cost of Test versus Cost of Tester 643
16.2.3 Throughput 645
16.3 DEBUGGING SKILLS 649
16.3.1 Sourceso f Error 649
16.3.2 The Scientific Method 649
16.3.3 Practical Debugging Skills 651
16.3.4 Importanceo f BenchI nstrumentation 652
16.3.5 Test Program Structure 652
16.3.6 CommonB ugsa ndT echniquesto Find Them 653
16.4 EMERGING TRENDS 655
16.4.1 TestL anguageS tandards 655
16.4.2 Test Simulation 656
16.4.3 NoncoherenSt ampling 658
16.4.4 Built-In Self-Test 658
16.4.5 Defect-OrientedT esting 658
16.5 SUMMARY 659
ANSWERS TO SELECTED PROBLEMS 663
INDEX

[ 本帖最后由 ix1982 于 2008-7-20 17:07 编辑 ]

cool_snake

谢谢楼主的好书，找几本下来看看

ix1982

Rohde & Schwarz - Fundamentals of Spectrum Analysis
Christoph Rauscher
(Volker Janssen, Roland Minihold)
221pages 文字版

Table of contents
1 INTRODUCTION 9
2 SIGNALS 10
2.1 Signals displayed in time domain 10
2.2 Relationship between time and frequency domain 11
3 CONFIGURATION AND CONTROL ELEMENTS
OF A SPECTRUM ANALYZER 19
3.1 Fourier analyzer (FFT analyzer) 19
3.2 Analyzers operating according to the heterodyne principle 29
3.3 Main setting parameters 32
4 PRACTICAL REALIZATION OF AN ANALYZER
OPERATING ON THE HETERODYNE PRINCIPLE 34
4.1 RF input section (frontend) 34
4.2 IF signal processing 46
4.3 Determination of video voltage and video filters 58
4.4 Detectors 64
4.5 Trace processing 77
4.6 Parameter dependencies 80
4.6.1 Sweep time, span, resolution and video bandwidths 80
4.6.2 Reference level and RF attenuation 84
4.6.3 Overdriving 90
5 PERFORMANCE FEATURES OF SPECTRUM ANALYZERS 100
5.1 Inherent noise 100
5.2 Nonlinearities 107
5.3 Phase noise (spectral purity) 119
5.4 1 dB compression point and maximum input level 125
5.5 Dynamic range 130
5.6 Immunity to interference 142
5.7 LO feedthrough 145
5.8 Filter characteristics 146
5.9 Frequency accuracy 147
5.10 Level measurement accuracy 148
5.10.1 Error components 149
Table of Contents
5
5.10.2 Calculation of total measurement uncertainty 156
5.10.3 Error due to low signal-to-noise ratio 164
5.11 Sweep time and update rate 167
6 FREQUENT MEASUREMENTS AND ENHANCED
FUNCTIONALITY 170
6.1 Phase noise measurements 170
6.1.1 Measurement procedure 170
6.1.2 Selection of resolution bandwidth 173
6.1.3 Dynamic range 175
6.2 Measurements on pulsed signals 180
6.2.1 Fundamentals 181
6.2.2 Line and envelope spectrum 186
6.2.3 Resolution filters for pulse measurements 191
6.2.4 Analyzer parameters 192
6.2.5 Pulse weighting in spurious signal measurements 194
6.2.5.1 Detectors, time constants 195
6.2.5.2 Measurement bandwidths 199
6.3 Channel and adjacent-channel power measurement 199
6.3.1 Introduction 199
6.3.2 Key parameters for adjacent-channel
power measurement 202
6.3.3 Dynamic range in adjacent-channel power measurements 203
6.3.4 Methods for adjacent-channel power measurement
using a spectrum analyzer 204
6.3.4.1 Integrated bandwidth method 204
6.3.4.2 Spectral power weighting with modulation filter
(IS-136, TETRA, WCDMA) 208
6.3.4.3 Channel power measurement in time domain 210
6.3.4.4 Spectral measurements on TDMA systems 211
MEASUREMENT TIPS
Measurements in 75 Ω system 35
Measurement on signals with DC component 39
Maximum sensitivity 106
Identification of intermodulation products 117
Improvement of input matching 155
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Table of Contents
REFERENCES 214
THE CURRENT SPECTRUM ANALYZER
MODELS FROM ROHDE & SCHWARZ 216

denap

Thanks for sharing!