Fundamentals of Telecommunications-5

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Fundamentals of Telecommunications-5

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Preface xxi
Chapter
1 Introductory Concepts 1
1.1 What Is Telecommunication? 1
.2 Telecommunication Will Touch Everybody 1
1
.3 Introductory Topics in Telecommunications 2
1
1
.3.1 End-Users, Nodes, and Connectivities 2
.3.2 Telephone Numbering and Routing 6
1
.3.3 Use of Tandem Switches in a Local Area
1
Connectivity
7
.3.4 Busy Hour and Grade of Service 7
1
.3.5 Simplex, Half-Duplex, and Full Duplex 9
1
.3.6 One-Way and Two-Way Circuits 9
1
.3.7 Network Topologies 10
1
.3.8 Variations in Traffic Flow 14
1
.4 Quality of Service 15
1
.5 Standardization in Telecommunications 16
1
.6 Organization of the PSTN in the United States 17
1
1.6.1 Points of Presence 17
Review Exercises 18
References 19
Chapter 2 Signals Convey Intelligence 21
2.1 Objective 21
.2 Signals in Everyday Life 21
2
.3 Basic Concepts of Electricity for Communications 22
2
2
.3.1 Early Sources of Electrical Current 22
.3.2 Electrical Telegraph: An Early Form of Long-
2
Distance Communications
23
.3.3 What Is Frequency? 25
2
2
.4 Electrical Signals 30
.4.1 Introduction to Transmission 30
2
.4.2 Modulation 31
2
2
.4.3 Binary Digital Signals 33
vii

viii CONTENTS
2.5 Introduction to Transporting Electrical Signals 34
.5.1 Wire Pair 34
2
.5.2 Coaxial Cable Transmission 37
2
.5.3 Fiber Optic Cable 38
2
.5.4 Radio Transmission 38
2
Review Exercises 40
References 41
Chapter 3 Quality of Service and Telecommunication Impairments 43
3.1 Objective 43
.2 Quality of Service: Voice, Data, and Image 43
3
.2.1 Introduction to Signal-to-Noise Ratio 43
3
.2.2 Voice Transmission 44
3
.2.3 Data Circuits 46
3
.2.4 Video (Television) 47
3
.3 Three Basic Impairments and How They Affect the
3
End-User
47
.3.1 Amplitude Distortion 47
3
.3.2 Phase Distortion 48
3
.3.3 Noise 50
3
.4 Level 53
3
.4.1 Typical Levels 53
3
.5 Echo and Singing 54
3
Review Exercises 54
References 55
Chapter 4 Transmission and Switching: Cornerstones of a Network 57
4.1 Transmission and Switching Defined 57
.2 Traffic Intensity Defines the Size of Switches and the
4
Capacity of Transmission Links
57
.2.1 Traffic Studies 57
4
.2.2 Discussion of the Erlang and Poisson Traffic
4
Formulas
63
.2.3 Waiting Systems (Queueing) 66
4
.2.4 Dimensioning and Efficiency 66
4
.2.5 Quantifying Data Traffic 71
4
.3 Introduction to Switching 71
4
.3.1 Basic Switching Requirements 71
4
.3.2 Concentration and Expansion 72
4
.3.3 Essential Functions of a Local Switch 73
4
.3.4 Some Introductory Switching Concepts 75
4
.3.5 Early Automatic Switching Systems 75
4
.3.6 Common Control (Hard-Wired) 77
4
4
.3.7 Stored Program Control 77
4
.3.8 Concentrators and Remote Switching 79

CONTENTS ix
4.4 Some Essential Concepts in Transmission 80
4
.4.1 Introduction 80
4
.4.2 Two-Wire and Four-Wire Transmission 80
4
.5 Introduction to Multiplexing 83
.5.1 Definition 83
4
4.5.2 Frequency Division Multiplex 84
4.5.3 Pilot Tones 87
4
.5.4 Comments on the Employment and
89
Disadvantages of FDM Systems
Review Exercises 90
References 92
Chapter 5 Transmission Aspects of Voice Telephony 93
5.1 Objective 93
5
.2 Definition of the Voice Channel 93
.2.1 Human Voice 94
5
5
.3 Operation of a Telephone Subset 94
.3.1 Subset Mouthpiece or Transmitter 97
5
5.3.2 Telephone Earpiece or Receiver 97
.4 Subscriber Loop Design 97
5
5
.4.1 Basic Design Considerations 97
5
.4.2 Subscriber Loop Length Limits 98
5.4.3 Designing a Subscriber Loop 99
5
.4.4 Extending the Subscriber Loop 101
5
.4.5 “Cookbook” Design Methods for Subscriber
102
Loops
5
.4.6 Current North American Loop Design Rules 105
5
.5 Design of Local Area Wire-Pair Trunks (Junctions) 106
.5.1 Introduction 106
5
5
.5.2 Inductive Loading of Wire-Pair Trunks
106
(Junctions)
5
.5.3 Local Trunk (Junction) Design Considerations 107
5
.6 VF Repeaters (Amplifiers) 108
Review Exercises 108
References 109
Chapter 6 Digital Networks 111
6.1 Introduction to Digital Transmission 111
6
.1.1 Two Different PCM Standards 112
6
.2 Basis of Pulse Code Modulation 112
6
.2.1 Sampling 112
6
.2.2 Quantization 113
.2.3 Coding 117
6
.3 PCM System Operation 122
6
6
.4 Line Code 123

x CONTENTS
6.5 Signal-to-Gaussian-Noise Ratio on PCM Repeatered
124
Lines
.6 Regenerative Repeaters 125
6
.7 PCM System Enhancements 126
6
6
.7.1 Enhancements to DS1126
.7.2 Enhancements to E1126
6
6
.8 Higher-Order PCM Multiplex Systems 127
6
.8.1 Introduction 127
.8.2 Stuffing and Justification 127
6
.8.3 North American Higher-Level Multiplex 127
6
.8.4 European E1 Digital Hierarchy 129
6
6
.9 Long-Distance PCM Transmission 131
6.9.1 Transmission Limitations 131
.9.2 Jitter and Wander 131
6
.9.3 Distortion 132
6
.9.4 Thermal Noise 132
6
.9.5 Crosstalk 133
6
6
.10 Digital Loop Carrier 133
6
.10.1 New Versions of DSL 133
6
.11 Digital Switching 133
6
.11.1 Advantages and Issues of Digital Switching 133
.11.2 Approaches to PCM Switching 134
6
.11.3 Review of Some Digital Switching Concepts 140
6
6
.12 Digital Network 142
6
.12.1 Introduction 142
.12.2 Technical Requirements of the Digital Network 143
6
.12.3 Digital Network Performance Requirements 148
6
Review Exercises 150
References 152
Chapter 7 Signaling 155
7.1 What Is the Purpose of Signaling? 155
.2 Defining the Functional Areas 155
7
7
.2.1 Supervisory Signaling 155
.2.2 Address Signaling 156
7
.2.3 Call Progress—Audible-Visual 156
7
7
.3 Signaling Techniques 156
7
.3.1 Conveying Signaling Information 156
.3.2 Evolution of Signaling 157
7
.3.3 Subscriber Call Progress Tones and Push-
7
164
Button Codes (North America)
7
.4 Compelled Signaling 164
.5 Concepts of Link-by-Link and End-to-End Signaling 166
7
7
.6 Effects of Numbering on Signaling 167
.7 Associated and Disassociated Channel Signaling 168
7
.8 Signaling in the Subscriber Loop 168
7

CONTENTS xi
7.8.1 Background and Purpose 168
7
.9 Metallic Trunk Signaling 171
7
.9.1 Basic Loop Signaling 171
.9.2 Reverse-Battery Signaling 172
7
Review Exercises 173
References 173
Chapter 8 Local and Long-Distance Networks 175
8.1 Objective 175
.2 Makeup of the PSTN 175
8
8
.2.1 Evolving Local Network 175
.2.2 What Affects Local Network Design? 176
8
8
.3 Design of Long-Distance Networks 179
8
.3.1 Introduction 179
.3.2 Three Design Steps 179
8
.3.3 Link Limitation 180
8
.3.4 Numbering Plan Areas 182
8
.3.5 Exchange Location 182
8
.3.6 Hierarchy 182
8
.3.7 Network Design Procedures 183
8
8
.4 Traffic Routing in a National Network 188
8
.4.1 New Routing Techniques 188
.4.2 Logic of Routing 189
8
.4.3 Call-Control Procedures 190
8
.4.4 Applications 191
8
8
.5 Transmission Factors in Long-Distance Telephony 194
8
.5.1 Introduction 194
.5.2 Echo 195
8
.5.3 Singing 195
8
.5.4 Causes of Echo and Singing 195
8
.5.5 Transmission Design to Control Echo and
8
198
Singing
.5.6 Introduction to Transmission-Loss Engineering 198
8
.5.7 Loss Plan for Digital Networks (United States) 200
8
Review Exercises 201
References 202
Chapter 9 Concepts in Transmission Transport 203
9.1 Objective 203
.2 Radio Systems 204
9
9
.2.1 Scope 204
.2.2 Introduction to Radio Transmission 204
9
.2.3 Line-of-Sight Microwave 205
9
.2.4 Fades, Fading and Fade Margins 221
9
.2.5 Diversity and Hot-Standby 223
9
.2.6 Frequency Planning and Frequency
9
225
Assignment

xii CONTENTS
9.3 Satellite Communications 225
9
.3.1 Introduction 225
.3.2 Satellite 226
9
9
.3.3 Three Basic Technical Problems 226
.3.4 Frequency Bands: Desirable and Available 228
9
9
.3.5 Multiple Access to a Communication
Satellite
228
.3.6 Earth Station Link Engineering 231
9
9
.3.7 Digital Communication by Satellite 237
9
.3.8 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
Networks
238
9
.4 Fiber Optic Communication Links 240
9
.4.1 Applications 240
9
.4.2 Introduction to Optical Fiber as a
Transmission Medium
241
9.4.3 Types of Optical Fiber 243
9
.4.4 Splices and Connectors 244
.4.5 Light Sources 245
9
9.4.6 Light Detectors 247
9.4.7 Optical Fiber Amplifiers 248
9.4.8 Wavelength Division Multiplexing 249
9.4.9 Fiber Optic Link Design 250
9
.5 Coaxial Cable Transmission Systems 253
9
.5.1 Introduction 253
9.5.2 Description 254
9
.5.3 Cable Characteristics 254
9
.6 Transmission Media Summary 255
Review Exercises 257
References 258
Chapter 10 Data Communications 261
10.1 Objective 261
10
.2 The Bit: A Review 261
10
.3 Removing Ambiguity: Binary Convention 262
10
.4 Coding 262
.5 Errors in Data Transmission 264
10
10
.5.1 Introduction 264
10
.5.2 Nature of Errors 265
.5.3 Error Detection and Correction 265
10
10
.6 dc Nature of Data Transmission 268
10
.6.1 dc Loops 268
.6.2 Neutral and Polar dc Data Transmission
10
Systems
268
10
.7 Binary Transmission and the Concept of Time 269
.7.1 Introduction 269
10
10
.7.2 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission 270
10
.7.3 Timing 272

CONTENTS xiii
10.7.4 Bits, Bauds, and Symbols 273
.7.5 Digital Data Waveforms 274
10
10
.8 Data Interface: The Physical Layer 275
.9 Digital Transmission on an Analog Channel 277
10
10
.9.1 Introduction 277
.9.2 Modulation–Demodulation Schemes 277
10
.9.3 Critical Impairments to the Transmission
10
278
of Data
.9.4 Channel Capacity 282
10
.9.5 Modem Selection Considerations 282
10
.9.6 Equalization 285
10
.9.7 Data Transmission on the Digital Network 286
10
10
.10 What Are Data Protocols? 288
10
.10.1 Basic Protocol Functions 289
.10.2 Open Systems Interconnection 290
10
.10.3 High-Level Data Link Control: A Typical
10
Link-Layer Protocol
294
Review Exercises 298
References 299
Chapter 11 Enterprise Networks I: Local Area Networks 301
11.1 What Do Enterprise Networks Do? 301
.2 Local Area Networks (LANs) 301
11
.3 LAN Topologies 302
11
.4 Baseband LAN Transmission Considerations 304
11
.5 Overview of ANSI IEEE LAN Protocols 305
11
/
11
.5.1 Introduction 305
.5.2 How LAN Protocols Relate to OSI 305
11
.5.3 Logical Link Control 306
11
11
.6 LAN Access Protocols 309
11
.6.1 Introduction 309
.6.2 CSMA and CSMA CD Access
11
/
309
Techniques
.6.3 Token Ring 319
11
.6.4 Fiber Distributed Data Interface 322
11
11
.7 LAN Interworking via Spanning Devices 327
11
.7.1 Repeaters 327
.7.2 LAN Bridges 327
11
.7.3 Routers 330
11
.7.4 Hubs and Switching Hubs 330
11
Review Exercises 331
References 332
Chapter 12 Enterprise Networks II: Wide Area Networks 333
12.1 Wide Area Network Deployment 333
12
.1.1 Introductory Comments 333

xiv CONTENTS
12.2 Packet Data Communications Based on CCITT Rec.
X.
25336
.2.1 Introduction to CCITT Rec. X.25336
12
.2.2 X.25 Architecture and Its Relationship to
12
336
OSI
.2.3 Tracing the Life of a Virtual Call 343
12
.3 TCP IP and Related Protocols 344
12
/
.4 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 352
12
.4.1 Background and Objectives 352
12
.4.2 ISDN Structures 353
12
.4.3 User Access and Interface Structures 354
12
12
.4.4 ISDN Protocols and Protocol Issues 356
.4.5 ISDN Networks 358
12
.4.6 ISDN Protocol Structures 359
12
.4.7 Primary Rate Interfaces 362
12
.4.8 Overview of Layer 2, ISDN D-Channel,
12
363
LAPD Protocol
.4.9 Overview of Layer 3367
12
.4.10 ISDN Packet Mode Review 368
12
.5 Speeding Up the Network: Frame Relay 371
12
.5.1 Rationale and Background 371
12
.5.2 Genesis of Frame Relay 373
12
.5.3 Introduction to Frame Relay Operation 374
12
.5.4 Frame Structure 375
12
.5.5 Traffic and Billing on a Frame Relay
12
000
Network
.5.6 Congestion Control: A Discussion 378
12
.5.7 Quality of Service Parameters 380
12
Review Exercises 381
References 383
Chapter 13 CCITT Signaling System No. 7 385
13.1 Introduction 385
.2 Overview of SS No. 7 Architecture 386
13
.3 SS No. 7: Relationship to OSI 386
13
.4 Signaling System Structure 388
13
.4.1 Signaling Network Management 390
13
.5 Signaling Data Link Layer (Layer 1) 391
13
.6 Signaling Link Layer (Layer 2) 392
13
.6.1 Basic Signal Unit Format 392
13
.6.2 Error Detection 393
13
.6.3 Error Correction 000
13
.6.4 Flow Control 394
13
.6.5 Basic Signal Unit Format 394
13
.7 Signaling Network Functions and Messages (Layer 3) 396
13
13
.7.1 Introduction 396
13
.7.2 Signaling Message-Handling Functions 397

CONTENTS xv
13.8 Signaling Network Structure 398
13
.8.1 Introduction 398
.8.2 International and National Signaling Networks 399
13
13
.9 Signaling Performance: Message Transfer Part 400
13
.9.1 Basic Performance Parameters 400
.9.2 Traffic Characteristics 400
13
13
.9.3 Transmission Parameters 400
.9.4 Signaling Link Delays over Terrestrial and
13
Satellite Links 400
13
.10 Numbering Plan for International Signaling Point Codes 401
.11 Signaling Connection Control Part (SCCP) 402
13
13
.11.1 Introduction 402
.11.2 Services Provided by the SCCP 403
13
13
.11.3 Peer-to-Peer Communication 403
.11.4 Connection-Oriented Functions: Temporary
13
Signaling Connections 403
13
.11.5 Structure of the SCCP 404
13
.12 User Parts 405
13
.12.1 Introduction 405
13
.12.2 Telephone User Part 407
Review Exercises 409
References 410
Chapter 14 Image Communications 413
14.1 Background and Objectives 413
.2 Appreciation of Video Transmission 413
14
14
.2.1 Additional Definitions 416
14
.3 Composite Signal 417
.4 Critical Video Parameters 419
14
14
.4.1 General 419
14
.4.2 Transmission Standard Level 419
.4.3 Other Parameters 420
14
14
.5 Video Transmission Standards (Criteria for
421
Broadcasters)
14
.5.1 Color Transmission 421
14
.5.2 Standardized Transmission Parameters (Point-
423
to-Point TV)
14
.6 Methods of Program Channel Transmission 424
14
.7 Transmission of Video over LOS Microwave 424
14
.7.1 Bandwidth of the Baseband and Baseband
425
Response
.7.2 Preemphasis 425
14
14
.7.3 Differential Gain 425
.7.4 Differential Phase 425
14
14
.7.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratio (10 kHz to 5 MHz) 426
14
.7.6 Continuity Pilot 426
.8 TV Transmission by Satellite Relay 426
14

xvi CONTENTS
14.9 Digital Television 427
14
.9.1 Introduction 427
.9.2 Basic Digital Television 428
14
.9.3 Bit Rate Reduction and Compression
14
Techniques
429
.9.4 Overview of the MPEG-2 Compression
14
Technique
430
14
.10 Conference Television 434
14
.10.1 Introduction 434
.10.2 pX64 Codec 434
14
14
.11 Brief Overview of Frame Transport for Video
Conferencing
438
14
.11.1 Basic Principle 438
Review Exercises 439
References 400
Chapter 15 Community Antenna Television (Cable Television) 443
15.1 Objective and Scope 443
.2 Evolution of CATV 444
15
15
.2.1 Beginnings 444
.2.2 Early System Layouts 445
15
15
.3 System Impairments and Performance Measures 446
15
.3.1 Overview 446
.3.2 dBmV and Its Applications 446
15
.3.3 Thermal Noise in CATV Systems 447
15
.3.4 Signal-to-Noise (S N) Ratio versus Carrier-
15
/
to-Noise (C
N) Ratio in CATV Systems 448
/
.3.5 Problem of Cross-Modulation (Xm) 450
15
.3.6 Gains and Levels for CATV Amplifiers 451
15
.3.7 Underlying Coaxial Cable System 452
15
.3.8 Taps 453
15
15
.4 Hybrid Fiber-Coax (HFC) Systems 454
15
.4.1 Design of the Fiber Optic Portion of an
HFC System
455
15
.5 Digital Transmission of CATV Signals 460
15
.5.1 Approaches 460
.5.2 Transmission of Uncompressed Video on
15
CATV Trunks
460
.5.3 Compressed Video 460
15
15
.6 Two-Way CATV Systems 462
15
.6.1 Introduction 462
.6.2 Impairments Peculiar to Upstream Service 464
15
15
.7 Two-Way Voice and Data over CATV Systems
According to the IEEE
802.14 Committee Standard 465
.7.1 General 465
15
.7.2 Overview of the Medium Access Control 466
15
15.7.3 Overview of the Physical Layer 466

CONTENTS xvii
15.7.4 Other General Information 467
15
.7.5 Medium Access Control 467
15
.7.6 Physical Layer Description 468
.7.7 Upstream Physical Layer Specification 472
15
Review Exercises 473
References 474
Chapter 16 Cellular and PCS Radio Systems 477
16.1 Introduction 477
.1.1 Background 477
16
16
.1.2 Scope and Objective 478
.2 Basic Concepts of Cellular Radio 478
16
16
.3 Radio Propagation in the Mobile Environment 482
.3.1 Propagation Problem 482
16
16
.3.2 Propagation Models 483
.4 Impairments: Fading in the Mobile Environment 485
16
.4.1 Introduction 485
16
16
.4.2 Diversity: A Technique to Mitigate the Effects
of Fading and Dispersion
486
16
.4.3 Cellular Radio Path Calculations 488
.5 Cellular Radio Bandwidth Dilemma 488
16
.5.1 Background and Objectives 488
16
16
.5.2 Bit Rate Reduction of the Digital Voice
Channel
489
.6 Network Access Techniques 489
16
.6.1 Introduction 489
16
16
.6.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access 489
16
.6.3 Time Division Multiple Access 490
16
.6.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 493
.7 Frequency Reuse 497
16
16
.8 Personal Communication Services 499
.8.1 Defining Personal Communications 499
16
16
.8.2 Narrowband Microcell Propagation at PCS
Distances
500
.9 Cordless Telephone Technology 504
16
.9.1 Background 504
16
16
.9.2 North American Cordless Telephones 504
16
.9.3 European Cordless Telephones 504
.10 Wireless LANs 505
16
16
.11 Mobile Satellite Communications 506
.11.1 Background and Scope 506
16
16
.11.2 Two Typical LEO Systems 507
16
.11.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of LEO
Systems
507
Review Exercises 507
References 509

xviii CONTENTS
Chapter 17 Advanced Broadband Digital Transport Formats 511
17.1 Introduction 511
.2 SONET 512
17
17
.2.1 Introduction and Background 512
.2.2 Synchronous Signal Structure 512
17
.2.3 Line Rates for Standard SONET Interface
17
Signals
522
.2.4 Add–Drop Multiplex 522
17
17
.3 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy 524
17
.3.1 Introduction 524
.3.2 SDH Standard Bit Rates 524
17
.3.3 Interface and Frame Structure of SDH 524
17
Review Exercises 531
References 532
Chapter 18 Asynchronous Transfer Mode 533
18.1 Evolving Toward ATM 533
.2 Introduction to ATM 534
18
.3 User–Network Interface and Architecture 536
18
.4 ATM Cell: Key to Operation 538
18
18
.4.1 ATM Cell Structure 538
.4.2 Idle Cells 542
18
18
.5 Cell Delineation and Scrambling 543
.6 ATM Layering and B-ISDN 543
18
18
.6.1 Physical Layer 543
.6.2 ATM Layer 545
18
.6.3 ATM Adaptation Layer 546
18
18
.7 Services: Connection-Oriented and Connectionless 549
18
.7.1 Functional Architecture 550
18
.8 B-ISDN ATM Routing and Switching 551
/
18
.8.1 Virtual Channel Level 551
.8.2 Virtual Path Level 551
18
18
.9 Signaling Requirements 552
18
.9.1 Setup and Release of VCCs 552
.9.2 Signaling Virtual Channels 552
18
18
.10 Quality of Service 554
18
.10.1 ATM Quality of Service Review 554
.10.2 Selected QoS Parameter Descriptions 554
18
18
.11 Traffic Control and Congestion Control 555
.12 Transporting ATM Cells 556
18
18
.12.1 In the DS3 Frame 556
.12.2 DS1 Mapping 557
18
18
.12.3 E1 Mapping 558
18
.12.4 Mapping ATM Cells into SDH 558
18
.12.5 Mapping ATM Cells into SONET 560

CONTENTS xix
Review Exercises 561
References 562
Appendix AReview of Fundamentals of Electricity With
563
Telecommunication Applications
A.1 Objective 563
A.2 What Is Electricity? 563
A.2.1 Electromotive Force and Voltage 564
A.2.2 Resistance 565
A.3 Ohm’s Law 565
A.3.1 Voltages and Resistances in a Closed Electric
Circuit
566
A.3.2 Resistance of Conductors 567
A.4 Resistances in Series and in Parallel, and Kirchhoff’s
Laws
568
A.4.1 Kirchhoff’s First Law 569
A.4.2 Kirchhoff’s Second Law 571
A.4.3 Hints on Solving dc Network Problems 572
A.5 Electric Power in dc Circuits 573
A.6 Introduction to Alternating Current Circuits 574
A.6.1 Magnetism and Magnetic Fields 575
A.6.2 Electromagnetism 575
A.7 Inductance and Capacitance 576
A.7.1 What Happens when We Close a Switch on
an Inductive Circuit?
576
A.7.2 RC Circuits and the Time Constant 580
A.8 Alternating Currents 582
A.8.1 Calculating Power in ac Circuits 586
A.8.2 Ohm’s Law Applied to Alternating Current
Circuits
586
A.8.3 Calculating Impedance 589
A.9 Resistance in ac Circuits 591
A.10 Resonance 591
References 592
Appendix BReview of Mathematics for Telecommunication
Applications
B.1 Objective and Scope 593
B.2 Introduction 593
B.2.1 Symbols and Notation 593
B.2.2 Function Concept 594
B.2.3 Using the Sigma Notation 594
B.3 Introductory Algebra 595
B.3.1 Review of the Laws of Signs 595
B.3.2 Conventions with Factors and Parentheses 595
B.3.3 Simple Linear Algebraic Equations 597
B.3.4 Quadratic Equations 599

xx CONTENTS
B.3.5 Solving Two Simultaneous Linear Equations
with Two Unknowns
600
B.4 Logarithms to the Base 10602
B.4.1 Definition of Logarithm 602
B.5 Essentials of Trigonometry 604
B.5.1 Definitions of Trigonometric Functions 604
B.5.2 Trigonometric Function Values for Angles
8
Greater than
90 606
References 608
Appendix CLearning Decibels and Their Applications 609
C.1 Learning Decibel Basics 609
C.2 dBm and dBW 614
C.3 Volume Unit 616
C.4 Using Decibels with Signal Currents and Voltages 616
C.5 Calculating a Numeric Value Given a dB Value 618
C.5.1 Calculating Watt and Milliwatt Values Given
dBW and dBm Values
619
C.6 Addition of dBs and Derived Units 620
C.7 dB Applied to the Voice Channel 621
C.8 Insertion Loss and Insertion Gain 625
C.9 Return Loss 626
C.10 Relative Power Level: dBm0, pWp0, and so on 628
C.10.1 Definition of Relative Power Level 628
C.10.2 Definition of Transmission Reference Point 628
C.11 dBi 630
C.11.1 dBd 630
C.12 EIRP 631
References
Appendix DAcronyms and Abbreviations 633
Index 645

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Fundamentals of Telecommunications

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