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发表于 2010-7-19 22:07:11
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Contents
PREFACE xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Automatic Identification Systems 2
1.1.1 Barcode systems 2
1.1.2 Optical character recognition 3
1.1.3 Biometric procedures 4
1.1.3.1 Voice identification 4
1.1.3.2 Fingerprinting procedures (dactyloscopy) 4
1.1.4 Smart cards 5
1.1.4.1 Memory cards 5
1.1.4.2 Microprocessor cards 6
1.1.5 RFID systems 6
1.2 A Comparison of Different ID Systems 7
1.3 Components of an RFID System 7
2 Differentiation Features of RFID Systems 11
2.1 Fundamental Differentiation Features 11
2.2 Transponder Construction Formats 13
2.2.1 Disks and coins 13
2.2.2 Glass housing 14
2.2.3 Plastic housing 14
2.2.4 Tool and gas bottle identification 15
2.2.5 Keys and key fobs 17
2.2.6 Clocks 18
2.2.7 ID-1 format, contactless smart cards 18
2.2.8 Smart label 19
2.2.9 Coil-on-chip 20
2.2.10 Other formats 21
2.3 Frequency, Range and Coupling 22
2.4 Information Processing in the Transponder 23
2.4.1 Low-end systems 23
2.4.2 Mid-range systems 24
2.4.3 High-end systems 25
2.5 Selection Criteria for RFID Systems 25
2.5.1 Operating frequency 26
2.5.2 Range 26vi CONTENTS
2.5.3 Security requirements 27
2.5.4 Memory capacity 28
3 Fundamental Operating Principles 29
3.1 1-Bit Transponder 29
3.1.1 Radio frequency 30
3.1.2 Microwaves 33
3.1.3 Frequency divider 35
3.1.4 Electromagnetic types 36
3.1.5 Acoustomagnetic 37
3.2 Full and Half Duplex Procedure 40
3.2.1 Inductive coupling 41
3.2.1.1 Power supply to passive transponders 41
3.2.1.2 Data transfer transponder →reader 42
3.2.2 Electromagnetic backscatter coupling 47
3.2.2.1 Power supply to the transponder 47
3.2.2.2 Data transmission →reader 49
3.2.3 Close coupling 49
3.2.3.1 Power supply to the transponder 49
3.2.3.2 Data transfer transponder →reader 50
3.2.4 Electrical coupling 51
3.2.4.1 Power supply of passive transponders 51
3.2.4.2 Data transfer transponder →reader 53
3.2.5 Data transfer reader →transponder 53
3.3 Sequential Procedures 54
3.3.1 Inductive coupling 54
3.3.1.1 Power supply to the transponder 54
3.3.1.2 A comparison between FDX/HDX and SEQ systems 54
3.3.1.3 Data transmission transponder →reader 56
3.3.2 Surface acoustic wave transponder 57
4 Physical Principles of RFID Systems 61
4.1 Magnetic Field 61
4.1.1 Magnetic field strength H 61
4.1.1.1 Path of field strength H(x) in conductor loops 62
4.1.1.2 Optimal antenna diameter 65
4.1.2 Magnetic flux and magnetic flux density 66
4.1.3 Inductance L 67
4.1.3.1 Inductance of a conductor loop 68
4.1.4 Mutual inductance M 68
4.1.5 Coupling coefficient k 70
4.1.6 Faraday’s law 71
4.1.7 Resonance 73
4.1.8 Practical operation of the transponder 78
4.1.8.1 Power supply to the transponder 78
4.1.8.2 Voltage regulation 78CONTENTS vii
4.1.9 Interrogation field strength Hmin 80
4.1.9.1 Energy range of transponder systems 82
4.1.9.2 Interrogation zone of readers 84
4.1.10 Total transponder — reader system 86
4.1.10.1 Transformed transponder impedance Z’
T 88
4.1.10.2 Influencing variables of Z’
T 90
4.1.10.3 Load modulation 97
4.1.11 Measurement of system parameters 103
4.1.11.1 Measuring the coupling coefficient k 103
4.1.11.2 Measuring the transponder resonant frequency 105
4.1.12 Magnetic materials 106
4.1.12.1 Properties of magnetic materials and ferrite 107
4.1.12.2 Ferrite antennas in LF transponders 108
4.1.12.3 Ferrite shielding in a metallic environment 109
4.1.12.4 Fitting transponders in metal 110
4.2 Electromagnetic Waves 111
4.2.1 The generation of electromagnetic waves 111
4.2.1.1 Transition from near field to far field in conductor loops 112
4.2.2 Radiation density S 114
4.2.3 Characteristic wave impedance and field strength E 115
4.2.4 Polarisation of electromagnetic waves 116
4.2.4.1 Reflection of electromagnetic waves 117
4.2.5 Antennas 119
4.2.5.1 Gain and directional effect 119
4.2.5.2 EIRP and ERP 120
4.2.5.3 Input impedance 121
4.2.5.4 Effective aperture and scatter aperture 121
4.2.5.5 Effective length 124
4.2.5.6 Dipole antennas 125
4.2.5.7 Yagi–Uda antenna 127
4.2.5.8 Patch or microstrip antenna 128
4.2.5.9 Slot antennas 130
4.2.6 Practical operation of microwave transponders 131
4.2.6.1 Equivalent circuits of the transponder 131
4.2.6.2 Power supply of passive transponders 133
4.2.6.3 Power supply of active transponders 140
4.2.6.4 Reflection and cancellation 141
4.2.6.5 Sensitivity of the transponder 142
4.2.6.6 Modulated backscatter 143
4.2.6.7 Read range 145
4.3 Surface Waves 148
4.3.1 The creation of a surface wave 148
4.3.2 Reflection of a surface wave 150
4.3.3 Functional diagram of SAW transponders (Figure 4.95) 151
4.3.4 The sensor effect 153
4.3.4.1 Reflective delay lines 154
4.3.4.2 Resonant sensors 155viii CONTENTS
4.3.4.3 Impedance sensors 157
4.3.5 Switched sensors 159
5 Frequency Ranges and Radio Licensing Regulations 161
5.1 Frequency Ranges Used 161
5.1.1 Frequency range 9–135 kHz 161
5.1.2 Frequency range 6.78MHz 163
5.1.3 Frequency range 13.56MHz 163
5.1.4 Frequency range 27.125MHz 163
5.1.5 Frequency range 40.680MHz 165
5.1.6 Frequency range 433.920MHz 165
5.1.7 Frequency range 869.0MHz 166
5.1.8 Frequency range 915.0MHz 166
5.1.9 Frequency range 2.45GHz 166
5.1.10 Frequency range 5.8 GHz 166
5.1.11 Frequency range 24.125GHz 166
5.1.12 Selection of a suitable frequency for inductively coupled RFID systems 167
5.2 European Licensing Regulations 169
5.2.1 CEPT/ERC REC 70-03 169
5.2.1.1 Annex 1: Non-specific short range devices 170
5.2.1.2 Annex 4: Railway applications 171
5.2.1.3 Annex 5: Road transport and traffic telematics 172
5.2.1.4 Annex 9: Inductive applications 172
5.2.1.5 Annex 11: RFID applications 172
5.2.1.6 Frequency range 868MHz 173
5.2.2 EN 300 330: 9 kHz–25MHz 173
5.2.2.1 Carrier power — limit values for H field transmitters 173
5.2.2.2 Spurious emissions 175
5.2.3 EN 300 220-1, EN 300 220-2 175
5.2.4 EN 300 440 176
5.3 National Licensing Regulations in Europe 177
5.3.1 Germany 177
5.4 National Licensing Regulations 179
5.4.1 USA 179
5.4.2 Future development: USA–Japan–Europe 180
6 Coding and Modulation 183
6.1 Coding in the Baseband 184
6.2 Digital Modulation Procedures 186
6.2.1 Amplitude shift keying (ASK) 186
6.2.2 2FSK 189
6.2.3 2PSK 190
6.2.4 Modulation procedures with subcarrier 191
7 Data Integrity 195
7.1 The Checksum Procedure 195CONTENTS ix
7.1.1 Parity checking 195
7.1.2 LRC procedure 196
7.1.3 CRC procedure 197
7.2 Multi-Access Procedures — Anticollision 200
7.2.1 Space division multiple access (SDMA) 202
7.2.2 Frequency domain multiple access (FDMA) 204
7.2.3 Time domain multiple access (TDMA) 205
7.2.4 Examples of anticollision procedures 206
7.2.4.1 ALOHA procedure 206
7.2.4.2 Slotted ALOHA procedure 208
7.2.4.3 Binary search algorithm 212
8DataSecurity 221
8.1 Mutual Symmetrical Authentication 221
8.2 Authentication Using Derived Keys 223
8.3 Encrypted Data Transfer 224
8.3.1 Stream cipher 225
9 Standardisation 229
9.1 Animal Identification 229
9.1.1 ISO 11784 — Code structure 229
9.1.2 ISO 11785 — Technical concept 230
9.1.2.1 Requirements 230
9.1.2.2 Full/half duplex system 232
9.1.2.3 Sequential system 232
9.1.3 ISO 14223 — Advanced transponders 233
9.1.3.1 Part 1 — Air interface 233
9.1.3.2 Part 2 — Code and command structure 234
9.2 Contactless Smart Cards 236
9.2.1 ISO 10536 — Close coupling smart cards 237
9.2.1.1 Part 1 — Physical characteristics 238
9.2.1.2 Part 2 — Dimensions and locations of coupling areas 238
9.2.1.3 Part 3 — Electronic signals and reset procedures 238
9.2.1.4 Part 4 — Answer to reset and transmission protocols 239
9.2.2 ISO 14443 — Proximity coupling smart cards 240
9.2.2.1 Part 1 — Physical characteristics 240
9.2.2.2 Part 2 — Radio frequency interference 240
9.2.2.3 Part 3 — Initialisation and anticollision 245
9.2.2.4 Part 4 — Transmission protocols 251
9.2.3 ISO 15693 — Vicinity coupling smart cards 256
9.2.3.1 Part 1 — Physical characteristics 256
9.2.3.2 Part 2 — Air interface and initialisation 256
9.2.4 ISO 10373 — Test methods for smart cards 260
9.2.4.1 Part 4: Test procedures for close coupling smart cards 261
9.2.4.2 Part 6: Test procedures for proximity coupling smart cards 261
9.2.4.3 Part 7: Test procedure for vicinity coupling smart cards 264x CONTENTS
9.3 ISO 69873 — Data Carriers for Tools and Clamping Devices 265
9.4 ISO 10374 — Container Identification 265
9.5 VDI 4470 — Anti-theft Systems for Goods 265
9.5.1 Part 1 — Detection gates — inspection guidelines for customers 265
9.5.1.1 Ascertaining the false alarm rate 266
9.5.1.2 Ascertaining the detection rate 267
9.5.1.3 Forms in VDI 4470 267
9.5.2 Part 2 — Deactivation devices, inspection guidelines for customers 268
9.6 Item Management 268
9.6.1 ISO 18000 series 268
9.6.2 GTAG initiative 269
9.6.2.1 GTAG transport layer (physical layer) 270
9.6.2.2 GTAG communication and application layer 271
10 The Architecture of Electronic Data Carriers 273
10.1 Transponder with Memory Function 273
10.1.1 HF interface 273
10.1.1.1 Example circuit — load modulation with subcarrier 274
10.1.1.2 Example circuit — HF interface for ISO 14443 transponder 276
10.1.2 Address and security logic 278
10.1.2.1 State machine 279
10.1.3 Memory architecture 280
10.1.3.1 Read-only transponder 280
10.1.3.2 Writable transponder 281
10.1.3.3 Transponder with cryptological function 281
10.1.3.4 Segmented memory 284
10.1.3.5 MIFARE application directory 286
10.1.3.6 Dual port EEPROM 289
10.2 Microprocessors 292
10.2.1 Dual interface card 293
10.2.1.1 MIFARE plus 295
10.2.1.2 Modern concepts for the dual interface card 296
10.3 Memory Technology 298
10.3.1 RAM 299
10.3.2 EEPROM 299
10.3.3 FRAM 300
10.3.4 Performance comparison FRAM — EEPROM 302
10.4 Measuring Physical Variables 302
10.4.1 Transponder with sensor functions 302
10.4.2 Measurements using microwave transponders 303
10.4.3 Sensor effect in surface wave transponders 305
11 Readers 309
11.1 Data Flow in an Application 309
11.2 Components of a Reader 309CONTENTS xi
11.2.1 HF interface 311
11.2.1.1 Inductively coupled system, FDX/HDX 312
11.2.1.2 Microwave systems — half duplex 313
11.2.1.3 Sequential systems — SEQ 314
11.2.1.4 Microwave system for SAW transponders 315
11.2.2 Control unit 316
11.3 Low Cost Configuration — Reader IC U2270B 317
11.4 Connection of Antennas for Inductive Systems 319
11.4.1 Connection using current matching 320
11.4.2 Supply via coaxial cable 322
11.4.3 The influence of the Q factor 325
11.5 Reader Designs 326
11.5.1 OEM readers 326
11.5.2 Readers for industrial use 327
11.5.3 Portable readers 328
12 The Manufacture of Transponders and Contactless
Smart Cards 329
12.1 Glass and Plastic Transponders 329
12.1.1 Module manufacture 329
12.1.2 Semi-finished transponder 330
12.1.3 Completion 332
12.2 Contactless Smart Cards 332
12.2.1 Coil manufacture 333
12.2.2 Connection technique 336
12.2.3 Lamination 338
13 Example Applications 341
13.1 Contactless Smart Cards 341
13.2 Public Transport 342
13.2.1 The starting point 343
13.2.2 Requirements 344
13.2.2.1 Transaction time 344
13.2.2.2 Resistance to degradation, lifetime, convenience 344
13.2.3 Benefits of RFID systems 345
13.2.4 Fare systems using electronic payment 346
13.2.5 Market potential 346
13.2.6 Example projects 347
13.2.6.1 Korea — seoul 347
13.2.6.2 Germany — L¨ uneburg, Oldenburg 349
13.2.6.3 EU Projects — ICARE and CALYPSO 350
13.3 Ticketing 354
13.3.1 Lufthansa miles & more card 354
13.3.2 Ski tickets 356xii CONTENTS
13.4 Access Control 357
13.4.1 Online systems 357
13.4.2 Offline systems 358
13.4.3 Transponders 360
13.5 Transport Systems 361
13.5.1 Eurobalise S21 361
13.5.2 International container transport 363
13.6 Animal Identification 364
13.6.1 Stock keeping 364
13.6.2 Carrier pigeon races 367
13.7 Electronic Immobilisation 371
13.7.1 The functionality of an immobilisation system 372
13.7.2 Brief success story 375
13.7.3 Predictions 376
13.8 Container Identification 376
13.8.1 Gas bottles and chemical containers 376
13.8.2 Waste disposal 378
13.9 Sporting Events 379
13.10 Industrial Automation 381
13.10.1 Tool identification 381
13.10.2 Industrial production 385
13.10.2.1 Benefits from the use of RFID systems 387
13.10.2.2 The selection of a suitable RFID system 388
13.10.2.3 Example projects 389
13.11 Medical Applications 392
14 Appendix 394
14.1 Contact Addresses, Associations and Technical Periodicals 394
14.1.1 Industrial associations 394
14.1.2 Technical journals 398
14.1.3 RFID on the internet 399
14.2 Relevant Standards and Regulations 400
14.2.1 Sources for standards and regulations 405
14.3 References 406
14.4 Printed Circuit Board Layouts 412
14.4.1 Test card in accordance with ISO 14443 412
14.4.2 Field generator coil 413
INDEX 419 |
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