"Having a background in both combat aviation and physics, I can say without a doubt that there is no other text that allows students with such diverse backgrounds to understand the principles behind the tactical use of radar as quickly and thoroughly as does Introduction to Airborne Radar. The book's conceptual approach is it's unique quality."
- Ed Tomme, Military Pilot Training Instructor
Part I Overview of Airborne Radar
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts 3
Radio Detection 4
Determining Target Position 6
Exploiting the Doppler Effect 10
Ground Mapping 11
Chapter 2 Approaches to Implementation 15
Generic “Pulsed” Radar 15
Generic Pulse-Doppler Radar 25
Generic Radar for Stealth 30
Chapter 3 Representative Applications 35
Hazardous-Weather Detection 36
Navigational Aid 36
Ground Mapping 39
Reconnaissance and Surveillance 40
Fighter/Interceptor Mission Support 41
Air-to-Ground Weapon Delivery 43
Short-Range Air-to-Sea Search 45
Proximity Fuses 45
Part II Essential Groundwork
Chapter 4 Radio Waves and Alternating
Current Signals 49
Nature of Radio Waves 49
Characteristics of Radio Waves 52
Chapter 5 Key to a Nonmathematical
Understanding of Radar 59
How a Phasor Represents a Signal 59
Combining Signals of Different Phase 61
Combining Signals of Different Frequency 62
Resolving Signals into I and Q Components 67
Chapter 6 The Ubiquitous Decibel 71
What Decibels Are 71
Converting from Power Ratios to dB 74
Converting from dB to Power Ratios 75
Representing Power Ratios Less Than One 75
Using Decibels 76
Power Gain in Terms of Voltage 77
Decibels as Absolute Units 77
Part III Radar Fundamentals
Chapter 7 Choice of Radio Frequency 83
Frequencies Used for Radar 83
Frequency Bands 84
Influence of Frequency on Radar Performance 85
Selecting the Optimum Frequency 88
Chapter 8 Directivity and the Antenna Beam 91
Distribution of Radiated Energy in Angle 91
Characteristics of the Radiation Pattern 96
Electronic Beam Steering 100
Angular Resolution 101
Angle Measurement 102
Antenna Beams for Ground Mapping 106
Chapter 9 Pulsed Operation 107
Advantages of Pulsed Transmission 107
Pulsed Waveform 108
viii
Output Power and Transmitted Energy 111
Chapter 10Detection Range 115
What Determines Detection Range 115
Electrical Background Noise 116
Energy of the Target Signal 122
Detection Process 125
Integration and Its Leverage
on Detection Range 127
Postdetection Integration 131
Chapter 11The Range Equation, What It
Does and Doesn’t Tell Us 135
General Range Equation 135
What the Equation Tells Us 138
Equation for Volume Search 140
Fluctuations in Radar Cross Section 142
Detection Probability 142
Cumulative Detection Probability 147
Chapter 12Pulse Delay Ranging 151
Basic Technique 151
Range Ambiguities 153
Eliminating Ambiguous Return 155
Resolving Ambiguities 156
Eliminating Ghosts 157
How Many PRFs? 159
Single-Target Tracking 161
Chapter 13Pulse Compressions 163
Linear Frequency Modulation (Chirp) 163
Binary Phase Modulation 169
Chapter 14FM Ranging 177
Basic Principle 177
Accounting for the Doppler Shift 179
Eliminating Ghosts 180
Performance 185
Part IV Pulse Doppler Radar
Chapter 15Doppler Effect 189
Doppler Effect and Its Causes 189
Where and How the Doppler Shift Takes Place 190
Magnitude of the Doppler Frequency 192
Doppler Frequency of an Aircraft 195
Doppler Frequency of Ground Return 196
Doppler Frequency Seen by a Semiactive
Missile 197
Chapter 16Spectrum of Pulsed Signal 199
Illustrative Experiments 200
Bandwidth 200
Coherence 202
Line Width versus Duration of Pulse Train 204
Spectral Sidelobes 206
Chapter 17Mysteries of Pulsed Spectrum
Unveiled 209
Crux of the Matter 209
Fourier Series 213
Spectrum Explained from a Filter’s
Point of View 222
Mathematical Explanation of the Pulsed
Spectrum 225
Chapter 18Sensing Doppler Frequencies 235
Doppler Filter Bank 235
Analog Filters 238
Digital Filtering 240
Providing Adequate Dynamic Range 248
Chapter 19How Digital Filters Work 253
Inputs to the Filter 253
What the Filter Does 256
Discrete Fourier Transform 259
Implementing the DFT 260
Sidelobe Reduction 263
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
ix
Filtering Actual Signals 264
Chapter 20The Digital Filter Bank
and the FFT 267
Basic Concept 268
A Representative FFT 268
FFTs for Filter Banks of Any Size 274
Rules of Thumb for Estimating Number
of Computations 277
Chapter 21Measuring Range Rate 281
Range Differentiation 281
Doppler Method 283
Potential Doppler Ambiguities 284
Resolving Doppler Ambiguities 286
Part V Return from the Ground
Chapter 22Sources and Spectra of
Ground Return 293
What Determines the Amplitude of the
Ground Return 294
Mainlobe Return 296
Sidelobe Clutter 299
Altitude Return 302
Relation of Clutter Spectrum to Target
Frequencies 303
Return from Objects on the Terrain 306
Chapter 23Effect of Range and Doppler
Ambiguities on Ground Clutter 309
Dispersed Nature of the Clutter 310
Range Ambiguities 311
Doppler Profile 314
Doppler Ambiguities 314
Chapter 24Separating Ground-Moving
Targets from Clutter 317
Problem of Detecting “Slow” Moving Targets 317
Classical DPCA 318
Notching Technique 320
Combined Notching and Classical DPCA 321
Precise Angle Measurement 322
Part VI Air-to-Air Operation
Chapter 25The Crucial Choice of PRF 325
Primary Consideration: Ambiguities 325
The Three Basic Categories of PRF 329
Low PRF Operation 330
Chapter 26Low PRF Operation 335
Differentiating Between Targets and Clutter 335
Signal Processing 340
Less Sophisticated Signal Processing 346
Advantages and Limitations 346
Getting Around Limitations 347
Chapter 27Medium PRF Operation 355
Differentiating Between Targets and Clutter 355
Signal Processing 359
Rejecting Ground Moving Targets (GMTs) 360
Eliminating Blind Zones 361
Minimizing Sidelobe Clutter 364
Sidelobe Return from Targets of Large RCS 365
Chapter 28High PRF Operation 369
High PRF Waveform 370
Isolating the Target Returns 370
Mechanization 373
Ranging 375
Problem of Eclipsing 376
Improving Tail Aspect Performance 378
Chapter 29Automatic Tracking 383
Single-Target Tracking 383
CONTENTS
x
Track-While-Scan 388
Part VII High-Resolution Ground
Mapping and Imaging
Chapter 30Meeting High-Resolution Ground
Mapping Requirements 393
How Resolution Is Defined 393
Factors Influencing Choice of Cell Size 394
Achieving Fine Resolution 397
Synthetic Array (Aperture) Radar 399
Chapter 31Principles of Synthetic Array
(Aperture) Radar 403
Basic SAR Concept 403
Focused Array 410
Reducing the Computing Load:
Doppler Processing 415
Chapter 32SAR Design Considerations 425
Choice of PRF 425
Minimizing Sidelobes 428
Motion Compensation 429
Limit of Uncompensated Phase Error 430
Chapter 33SAR Operating Modes 431
Squinted Array 432
Multilook Mapping 432
Spotlight Mode 433
Doppler Beam Sharpening (DBS) 434
Moving Target Display 434
Inverse SAR (ISAR) Imaging 435
Part VIII Radar in Electronic Warfare
Chapter 34Electronic Countermeasure
(ECM) Techniques 439
Chaff 439
Noise Jamming 440
False Targets 446
Gate Stealing Deception 448
Angle Deception 450
Radar Decoys 453
Future Trends 454
Chapter 35Electronic Counter Countermeasures (ECCM) 457
Conventional Measures for Countering
Noise Jamming 457
Conventional Counters to Deception ECM 461
Advanced ECCM Developments 463
The Most Effective ECCM of All 467
Chapter 36Electronic Warfare Intelligence
Functions 469
Electronic Intelligence (ELINT) 469
Electronic Support Measures (ESM) 469
Radar Warning Receiver (RWR) 472
Part IX Advanced Concepts
Chapter 37Electronically-Steered Array
Antennas (ESAs) 473
Basic Concepts 473
Types of ESAs 474
Advantages Common to Passive
and Active ESAs 475
Additional Advantages of the Active ESA 477
Key Limitations and Their Circumvention 478
Chapter 38ESA Design 481
Considerations Common to Passive
and Active ESAs 481
Design of Passive ESAs 485
Design of Active ESAs 487
Chapter 39Antenna RCS Reduction 493
Sources of Reflections from a Planar Array 493
CONTENTS
xi
Reducing and Controlling Antenna RCS 494
Avoiding Bragg Lobes 496
Validating an Antenna’s Predicted RCS 497
Chapter 40Advanced Radar Techniques 499
Approaches to Multiple Frequency Operation 500
Small Target Detection 504
Bistatic Target Detection 507
Space-Time Adaptive Processing (STAP) 509
Photonic True-Time-Delay (TTD)
Beam Steering 511
Interferometric SAR (InSAR) 515
Chapter 41Advanced Waveforms and
Mode Control 519
Range-Gated High PRF 519
Pulse Burst 520
Monopulse Doppler 521
Search-While-Track (SWT) Mode 523
Mode Management 523
Chapter 42Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) 525
Generic Intercept Systems 525
Operational Strategies 526
Design Strategies 527
Special LPI-Enhancing Design Features 528
Cost of PLI 532
Possible Future Trends in LPI Design 533
Chapter 43Advanced Processor Architecture 535
Parallel Processing 535
Achieving High-Throughput Density 537
Efficient Modular Design 540
Fault Tolerance 541
Integrated Processing 542
Advanced Developments 543
Part X Representative Radar Systems
Reconnaissance & Surveillance
E-2C Hawkeye (APS-145) 547
E-3 AWACS Radar 548
Joint STARS 549
Fighter & Attack
F-22 (APG-77) 550
F-16 C/D (APG-68) 551
F-18 C/D (APG-73) 552
F-4E (APG-76) 554
Strategic Bombing
B-2 Bomber (APQ-181) 555
B-1B Radar (APQ-164) 556
Attack Helicopter
AH-64D Apache Helicopter (Longbow Radar) 558
Transport/Tanker Navigation
C-130 (APN-241) 559
Civil Applications
RDR-4B Civil Weather Radar 560
HISAR 561
Appendix
Rules of Thumb 563
Reference Data 564
References
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发表于 2013-6-17 08:40:50
