RF Power Amplifier, 2nd Edition_Marian K. Kazimierczuk_2014

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Contents
Preface xvii
About the Author xix
List of Symbols xxi
List of Acronyms xxv
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Radio Transmitters 1
1.2 Batteries for Portable Electronics 2
1.3 Block Diagram of RF Power Amplifiers 2
1.4 Classes of Operation of RF Power Amplifiers 5
1.5 Waveforms of RF Power Amplifiers 7
1.6 Parameters of RF Power Amplifiers 7
1.6.1 Drain Efficiency of RF Power Amplifiers 7
1.6.2 Statistical Characterization of Transmitter Average Efficiency 9
1.6.3 Gate-Drive Power 10
1.6.4 Power-Added Efficiency 11
1.6.5 Output-Power Capability 12
1.7 Transmitter Noise 12
1.8 Conditions for 100% Efficiency of Power Amplifiers 13
1.9 Conditions for Nonzero Output Power at 100% Efficiency of Power Amplifiers 16
1.10 Output Power of Class E ZVS Amplifiers 18
1.11 Class E ZCS Amplifiers 21
1.12 Antennas 23
1.13 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves 25
1.14 Frequency Spectrum 26
1.15 Duplexing 28
1.16 Multiple-Access Techniques 29
1.17 Nonlinear Distortion in Transmitters 29
1.18 Harmonics of Carrier Frequency 30
1.19 Intermodulation Distortion 33
1.20 AM/AM Compression and AM/PM Conversion 38
1.21 Dynamic Range of Power Amplifiers 38
1.22 Analog Modulation 39
1.22.1 Amplitude Modulation 41
1.22.2 Phase Modulation 48
1.22.3 Frequency Modulation 49
1.23 Digital Modulation 54
1.23.1 Amplitude-Shift Keying 54
1.23.2 Phase-Shift Keying 55
1.23.3 Frequency-Shift Keying 55
1.24 Radars 57
1.25 Radio-Frequency Identification 58
1.26 Summary 59
1.27 Review Questions 61
1.28 Problems 62
References 63
2 Class A RF Power Amplifier 65
2.1 Introduction 65
2.2 Power MOSFET Characteristics 65
2.2.1 Square Law for MOSFET Drain Current 65
2.2.2 Channel-Length Modulation 66
2.2.3 Low- and Mid-Frequency Small-Signal Model of MOSFETs 67
2.2.4 High-Frequency Small-Signal Model of the MOSFET 68
2.2.5 Unity-Gain Frequency 68
2.3 Short-Channel Effects 70
2.3.1 Electric Field Effect on Charge Carriers Mobility 70
2.3.2 Ohmic Region 71
2.3.3 Pinch-Off Region 72
2.3.4 Wide Band Gap Semiconductor Devices 76
2.4 Circuit of Class A RF Power Amplifier 78
2.5 Waveforms in Class A RF Amplifier 80
2.5.1 Assumptions 80
2.5.2 Current and Voltage Waveforms 81
2.5.3 Output Power Waveforms 83
2.5.4 Transistor Power Loss Waveforms 84
2.6 Energy Parameters of Class A RF Power Amplifier 87
2.6.1 Drain Efficiency of Class A RF Power Amplifier 87
2.6.2 Statistical Characterization of Class A RF Power Amplifier 91
2.6.3 Drain Efficiency at Nonzero Minimum Drain-to-Source Voltage 95
2.6.4 Output-Power Capability of Class A RF Power Amplifier 95
2.6.5 Gate Drive Power 96
2.7 Parallel-Resonant Circuit 97
2.7.1 Quality Factor of Parallel-Resonant Circuit 97
2.7.2 Impedance of Parallel-Resonant Circuit 98
2.7.3 Bandwidth of Parallel-Resonant Circuit 98
2.8 Power Losses and Efficiency of Parallel-Resonant Circuit 100
2.9 Class A RF Power Amplifier with Current Mirror 103
2.10 Impedance Matching Circuits 107
2.11 Class A RF Linear Amplifier 111
2.11.1 Amplifier for Variable-Envelope Signals 111
2.11.2 Amplifiers for Constant-Envelope Signals 113
2.12 Summary 113
2.13 Review Questions 115
2.14 Problems 115
References 116
3 Class AB, B, and C RF Power Amplifiers 117
3.1 Introduction 117
3.2 Class B RF Power Amplifier 117
3.2.1 Circuit of Class B RF Power Amplifier 117
3.2.2 Waveforms in Class B RF Power Amplifier 118
3.2.3 Power Relationships for Class B RF Amplifier 123
3.2.4 Drain Efficiency of Class B RF Power Amplifier 124
3.2.5 Statistical Characterization of Drain Efficiency for Class B RF Power Amplifier 125
3.2.6 Comparison of Drain Efficiencies of Class A and B RF Power Amplifiers 128
3.2.7 Output-Power Capability of Class B RF Power Amplifier 128
3.3 Class AB and C RF Power Amplifiers 131
3.3.1 Waveforms in Class AB and C RF Power Amplifiers 131
3.3.2 Power of Class AB, B, and C Power Amplifiers 138
3.3.3 Drain Efficiency of Class AB, B, and C RF Power Amplifiers 138
3.3.4 Output-Power Capability of Class AB, B, and C RF Power Amplifiers 139
3.3.5 Parameters of Class AB RF Power Amplifier at 𝜃 = 120° 139
3.3.6 Parameters of Class C RF Power Amplifier at 𝜃 = 60° 142
3.3.7 Parameters of Class C RF Power Amplifier at 𝜃 = 45° 144
3.4 Push–Pull Complementary Class AB, B, and C RF Power Amplifiers 147
3.4.1 Circuit of Push–Pull RF Power Amplifier 147
3.4.2 Even Harmonic Cancellation in Push–Pull Amplifiers 148
3.4.3 Power Relationships for Push–Pull RF Power Amplifier 149
3.4.4 Device Stresses 151
3.5 Transformer-Coupled Class B Push–Pull RF Power Amplifier 153
3.5.1 Waveforms 153
3.5.2 Power Relationships 155
3.5.3 Device Stresses 156
3.6 Class AB, B, and C RF Power Amplifiers with Variable-Envelope Signals 158
3.7 Summary 160
3.8 Review Questions 161
3.9 Problems 162
References 162
4 Class D RF Power Amplifiers 164
4.1 Introduction 164
4.2 MOSFET as a Switch 165
4.3 Circuit Description of Class D RF Power Amplifier 166
4.4 Principle of Operation of Class D RF Power Amplifier 168
4.4.1 Operation Below Resonance 171
4.4.2 Operation Above Resonance 173
4.5 Topologies of Class D Voltage-Source RF Power Amplifiers 174
4.6 Analysis 176
4.6.1 Assumptions 176
4.6.2 Input Voltage of Resonant Circuit 177
4.6.3 Series-Resonant Circuit 178
4.6.4 Input Impedance of Series-Resonant Circuit 181
4.7 Bandwidth of Class D RF Power Amplifier 184
4.8 Operation of Class D RF Power Amplifier at Resonance 187
4.8.1 Characteristics of Ideal Class D RF Power Amplifier 187
4.8.2 Current and Voltage Stresses of Class D RF Power Amplifier 188
4.8.3 Output-Power Capability of Class D RF Power Amplifier 188
4.8.4 Power Losses and Efficiency of Class D RF Power Amplifier 188
4.8.5 Gate Drive Power 189
4.9 Class D RF Power Amplifier with Amplitude Modulation 192
4.10 Operation of Class D RF Power Amplifier Outside Resonance 195
4.10.1 Current and Voltage Stresses 199
4.10.2 Operation Under Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Conditions 200
4.11 Efficiency of Half-Bridge Class D Power Amplifier 202
4.11.1 Conduction Losses 202
4.11.2 Turn-On Switching Loss 203
4.11.3 Turn-Off Switching Loss 207
4.12 Design Example 209
4.13 Transformer-Coupled Push–Pull Class D Voltage-Switching RF Power Amplifier 211
4.13.1 Waveforms 211
4.13.2 Power 213
4.13.3 Current and Voltage Stresses 213
4.13.4 Efficiency 214
4.14 Class D Full-Bridge RF Power Amplifier 216
4.14.1 Currents, Voltages, and Powers 216
4.14.2 Efficiency of Full-Bridge Class D RF Power Amplifier 219
4.14.3 Operation Under Short-Circuit and Open-Circuit Conditions 219
4.14.4 Voltage Transfer Function 220
4.15 Phase Control of Full-Bridge Class D Power Amplifier 221
4.16 Class D Current-Switching RF Power Amplifier 223
4.16.1 Circuit and Waveforms 223
4.16.2 Power 226
4.16.3 Voltage and Current Stresses 226
4.16.4 Efficiency 226
4.17 Transformer-Coupled Push–pull Class D Current-Switching RF Power Amplifier 228
4.17.1 Waveforms 228
4.17.2 Power 231
4.17.3 Device Stresses 231
4.17.4 Efficiency 231
4.18 Bridge Class D Current-Switching RF Power Amplifier 234
4.19 Summary 239
4.20 Review Questions 240
4.21 Problems 240
References 241
5 Class E Zero-Voltage Switching RF Power Amplifiers 243
5.1 Introduction 243
5.2 Circuit Description 243
5.3 Circuit Operation 245
5.4 ZVS and ZDS Operations of Class E Amplifier 246
5.5 Suboptimum Operation 248
5.6 Analysis 249
5.6.1 Assumptions 249
5.6.2 Current and Voltage Waveforms 249
5.6.3 Current and Voltage Stresses 251
5.6.4 Voltage Amplitudes Across the Series-Resonant Circuit 252
5.6.5 Component Values of the Load Network 254
5.6.6 Output Power 255
5.7 Drain Efficiency of Ideal Class E Amplifier 255
5.8 RF Choke Inductance 255
5.9 Maximum Operating Frequency of Class E Amplifier 256
5.10 Summary of Parameters at D = 0.5 257
5.11 Efficiency 258
5.12 Design of Basic Class E Amplifier 261
5.13 Impedance Matching Resonant Circuits 264
5.13.1 Tapped Capacitor Downward Impedance Matching Resonant Circuit 𝜋1a 265
5.13.2 Tapped Inductor Downward Impedance Matching Resonant Circuit 𝜋2a 268
5.13.3 Matching Resonant Circuit 𝜋1b 271
5.13.4 Matching Resonant Circuit 𝜋2b 274
5.13.5 Quarter-Wavelength Impedance Inverters 277
5.14 Class E ZVS RF Power Amplifier with Only Nonlinear Shunt Capacitance 279
5.15 Push–Pull Class E ZVS RF Power Amplifier 283
5.16 Class E ZVS RF Power Amplifier with Finite DC-Feed Inductance 285
5.17 Class E ZVS Amplifier with Parallel-Series Resonant Circuit 288
5.18 Class E ZVS Amplifier with Nonsinusoidal Output Voltage 291
5.19 Class E ZVS Power Amplifier with Parallel-Resonant Circuit 296
5.20 Amplitude Modulation of Class E ZVS RF Power Amplifier 301
5.21 Summary 303
5.22 Review Questions 304
5.23 Problems 304
References 305
6 Class E Zero-Current Switching RF Power Amplifier 310
6.1 Introduction 310
6.2 Circuit Description 310
6.3 Principle of Operation 311
6.4 Analysis 314
6.4.1 Steady-State Current and Voltage Waveforms 314
6.4.2 Peak Switch Current and Voltage 315
6.4.3 Fundamental-Frequency Components 316
6.5 Power Relationships 317
6.6 Element Values of Load Network 317
6.7 Design Example 318
6.8 Summary 319
6.9 Review Questions 320
6.10 Problems 320
References 320
7 Class DE RF Power Amplifier 322
7.1 Introduction 322
7.2 Analysis of Class DE RF Power Amplifier 322
7.3 Components 328
7.4 Device Stresses 331
7.5 Design Equations 331
7.6 Maximum Operating Frequency 332
7.7 Class DE Amplifier with Only One Shunt Capacitor 333
7.8 Output Power 336
7.9 Cancellation of Nonlinearities of Transistor Output Capacitances 337
7.10 Amplitude Modulation of Class DE RF Power Amplifier 337
7.11 Summary 337
7.12 Review Questions 338
7.13 Problems 338
References 339
8 Class F RF Power Amplifiers 340
8.1 Introduction 340
8.2 Class F RF Power Amplifier with Third Harmonic 341
8.2.1 Maximally Flat Class F3 Amplifier 345
8.2.2 Maximum Drain Efficiency Class F3 Amplifier 353
8.3 Class F35 RF Power Amplifier with Third and Fifth Harmonics 362
8.3.1 Maximally Flat Class F35 Amplifier 362
8.3.2 Maximum Drain Efficiency Class F35 Amplifier 370
8.4 Class F357 RF Power Amplifier with Third, Fifth, and Seventh Harmonics 372
8.5 Class FT RF Power Amplifier with Parallel-Resonant Circuit and
Quarter-Wavelength Transmission Line 373
8.6 Class F2 RF Power Amplifier with Second Harmonic 378
8.6.1 Fourier Series of Rectangular Drain Current Waveform 378
8.6.2 Maximally Flat Class F2 Amplifier 382
8.6.3 Maximum Drain Efficiency Class F2 Amplifier 388
8.7 Class F24 RF Power Amplifier with Second and Fourth Harmonics 392
8.7.1 Maximally Flat Class F24 Amplifier 392
8.7.2 Maximum Drain Efficiency Class F24 Amplifier 399
8.8 Class F246 RF Power Amplifier with Second, Fourth, and Sixth Harmonics 402
8.9 Class FK RF Power Amplifier with Series-Resonant Circuit and Quarter-Wavelength Transmission Line 402
8.10 Summary 407
8.11 Review Questions 408
8.12 Problems 409
References 409
9 Linearization and Efficiency Improvements of RF Power Amplifiers 411
9.1 Introduction 411
9.2 Predistortion 412
9.3 Feedforward Linearization Technique 414
9.4 Negative Feedback Linearization Technique 415
9.5 Envelope Elimination and Restoration 419
9.6 Envelope Tracking 421
9.7 The Doherty Amplifier 423
9.7.1 Condition for High Efficiency Over Wide Power Range 424
9.7.2 Impedance Modulation Concept 424
9.7.3 Equivalent Circuit of Doherty Amplifier 425
9.7.4 Power and Efficiency of Doherty Amplifier 426
9.8 Outphasing Power Amplifier 428
9.9 Summary 430
9.10 Review Questions 431
9.11 Problems 432
References 432
10 Integrated Inductors 437
10.1 Introduction 437
10.2 Skin Effect 437
10.3 Resistance of Rectangular Trace 439
10.4 Inductance of Straight Rectangular Trace 442
10.5 Meander Inductors 444
10.6 Inductance of Straight Round Conductor 449
10.7 Inductance of Circular Round Wire Loop 450
10.8 Inductance of Two-Parallel Wire Loop 450
10.9 Inductance of Rectangle of Round Wire 450
10.10 Inductance of Polygon Round Wire Loop 450
10.11 Bondwire Inductors 451
10.12 Single-Turn Planar Inductor 452
10.13 Inductance of Planar Square Loop 454
10.14 Planar Spiral Inductors 454
10.14.1 Geometries of Planar Spiral Inductors 454
10.14.2 Inductance of Square Planar Inductors 456
10.14.3 Inductance of Hexagonal Spiral Inductors 465
10.14.4 Inductance of Octagonal Spiral Inductors 466
10.14.5 Inductance of Circular Spiral Inductors 467
10.15 Multi-Metal Spiral Inductors 468
10.16 Planar Transformers 469
10.17 MEMS Inductors 469
10.18 Inductance of Coaxial Cable 472
10.19 Inductance of Two-Wire Transmission Line 472
10.20 Eddy Currents in Integrated Inductors 472
10.21 Model of RF Integrated Inductors 474
xiv CONTENTS
10.22 PCB Inductors 475
10.23 Summary 476
10.24 Review Questions 477
10.25 Problems 478
References 479
11 RF Power Amplifiers with Dynamic Power Supply 482
11.1 Introduction 482
11.2 Dynamic Power Supply 482
11.3 Amplitude Modulator 483
11.4 DC Analysis of PWM Buck Converter Operating in CCM 484
11.4.1 Circuit Description 484
11.4.2 Assumptions 487
11.4.3 Time Interval: 0 < t ≤ DT 487
11.4.4 Time Interval: DT < t ≤ T 488
11.4.5 Device Stresses for CCM 489
11.4.6 DC Voltage Transfer Function for CCM 489
11.4.7 Boundary Between CCM and DCM for Lossless Buck Converter 491
11.4.8 Boundary Between CCM and DCM for Lossy Buck Converter 492
11.4.9 Capacitors 493
11.4.10 Ripple Voltage in Buck Converter for CCM 495
11.4.11 Switching Losses with Linear MOSFET Output Capacitance 501
11.4.12 Power Losses and Efficiency of Buck Converter for CCM 503
11.4.13 DC Voltage Transfer Function of Lossy Converter for CCM 507
11.4.14 MOSFET Gate Drive Power 508
11.4.15 Design of Buck Converter Operating as Amplitude Modulator Operating in CCM 509
11.5 Synchronous Buck Converter as Amplitude Modulator 518
11.6 Multiphase Buck Converter 523
11.7 Layout 525
11.8 Summary 526
11.9 Review Questions 527
11.10 Problems 527
References 528
12 Oscillators 531
12.1 Introduction 531
12.2 Classification of Oscillators 532
12.3 General Conditions for Oscillations 532
12.3.1 Transfer Functions of Oscillators 532
12.3.2 Polar Form of Conditions for Oscillation 534
12.3.3 Rectangular Form of Conditions for Oscillation 534
12.3.4 Closed-Loop Gain of Oscillators 535
12.3.5 Characteristic Equation of Oscillators 535
12.3.6 Instability of Oscillators 536
12.3.7 Root Locus of Closed-Loop Gain 536
12.3.8 Nyquist Plot of Oscillators 539
12.3.9 Stability of Oscillation Frequency 540
12.3.10 Stability of Oscillation Amplitude 540
12.4 Topologies of LC Oscillators with Inverting Amplifier 543
12.5 Op-Amp Colpitts Oscillator 545
12.6 Single-Transistor Colpitts Oscillator 547
12.7 Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 550
12.7.1 Feedback Network Factor of Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 551
12.7.2 Amplifier Voltage Gain of Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 551
12.7.3 Loop Gain of Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 554
12.7.4 Closed-Loop Gain of Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 554
12.7.5 Nyquist Plot for Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 557
12.7.6 Root Locus for Common-Source Colpitts Oscillator 557
12.8 Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 558
12.8.1 Loaded Quality Factor of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 560
12.8.2 Feedback Factor of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 561
12.8.3 Characteristic Equation for Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 563
12.8.4 Amplifier Voltage Gain of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 564
12.8.5 Loop Gain of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 565
12.8.6 Closed-Loop Gain of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 568
12.8.7 Root Locus of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillators 568
12.8.8 Nyquist Plot of Common-Gate Colpitts Oscillator 569
12.9 Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 569
12.9.1 Feedback Factor of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 571
12.9.2 Characteristic Equation of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 573
12.9.3 Amplifier Gain of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 575
12.9.4 Loop Gain of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 576
12.9.5 Closed-Loop Gain of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 576
12.9.6 Nyquist Plot of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 579
12.9.7 Root Locus of Common-Drain Colpitts Oscillator 579
12.10 Clapp Oscillator 581
12.11 Crystal Oscillators 583
12.12 CMOS Oscillator 588
12.12.1 Deviation of Oscillation Frequency Caused by Harmonics 588
12.13 Hartley Oscillator 589
12.13.1 Op-Amp Hartley Oscillator 589
12.13.2 Single-Transistor Hartley Oscillator 590
12.14 Armstrong Oscillator 592
12.14.1 Op-Amp Armstrong Oscillator 592
12.14.2 Single-Transistor Armstrong Oscillator 593
12.15 LC Oscillators with Noninverting Amplifier 594
12.15.1 LC Single-Transistor Oscillators with Noninverting Amplifier 596
12.15.2 LC Oscillators with Noninverting Op-Amp 597
12.16 Cross-Coupled LC Oscillators 598
12.17 Wien-Bridge RC Oscillator 605
12.17.1 Loop Gain 605
12.17.2 Closed-Loop Gain 607
12.18 Oscillators with Negative Resistance 611
12.19 Voltage-Controlled Oscillators 615
12.20 Noise in Oscillators 616
12.20.1 Thermal Noise 616
12.20.2 Phase Noise 620
12.21 Summary 624
12.22 Review Questions 626
12.23 Problems 626
References 627
Appendices 630
A SPICE Model of Power MOSFETs 631
B Introduction to SPICE 634
C Introduction to MATLAB&#174; 637
D Trigonometric Fourier Series 641
E Circuit Theorems 645
F SABER Circuit Simulator 649
Answers to Problems 651
Index 655

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