Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits

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Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits to Biomedical Instrumentation
by  Robert B. Northrop

content

Preface.................................................................................................................... vii
Reader Background ............................................................................................. vii
Rationale................................................................................................................ vii
Description of the Chapters .............................................................................. viii
Features.....................................................................................................................x
1 Sources and Properties of Biomedical Signals ........................... 1
1.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................1
1.2 Sources of Endogenous Bioelectric Signals ...............................................1
1.3 Nerve Action Potentials................................................................................2
1.4 Muscle Action Potentials ..............................................................................5
1.4.1 Introduction........................................................................................5
1.4.2 The Origin of EMGs .........................................................................6
1.4.3 EMG Amplifiers.................................................................................9
1.5 The Electrocardiogram..................................................................................9
1.5.1 Introduction........................................................................................9
1.5.2 ECG Amplifiers ...............................................................................10
1.6 Other Biopotentials...................................................................................... 11
1.6.1 Introduction...................................................................................... 11
1.6.2 EEGs ..................................................................................................12
1.6.3 Other Body Surface Potentials ......................................................13
1.7 Discussion .....................................................................................................13
1.8 Electrical Properties of Bioelectrodes .......................................................13
1.9 Exogenous Bioelectric Signals ...................................................................17
1.10 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................20
2 Models for Semiconductor Devices Used in Analog
Electronic Systems ........................................................................ 23
2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................23
2.2 pn Junction Diodes ......................................................................................24
2.2.1 Introduction......................................................................................24
2.2.2 The pn Diode’s Volt–Ampere Curve............................................24
2.2.3 High-Frequency Behavior of Diodes ...........................................28
2.2.4 Schottky Diodes...............................................................................30
2.3 Mid-Frequency Models for BJT Behavior................................................33
2.3.1 Introduction......................................................................................33
2.3.2 Mid-Frequency Small-Signal Models for BJTs............................35
2.3.3 Amplifiers Using One BJT .............................................................40
2.3.4 Simple Amplifiers Using Two Transistors at
Mid-Frequencies ..............................................................................44
2.3.5 The Use of Transistor Dynamic Loads To Improve Amplifier
Performance .....................................................................................53
2.4 Mid-Frequency Models for Field-Effect Transistors ..............................56
2.4.1 Introduction......................................................................................56
2.4.2 JFETs at Mid-Frequencies...............................................................57
2.4.3 MOSFET Behavior at Mid-Frequencies .......................................60
2.4.4 Basic Mid-Frequency Single FET Amplifiers..............................62
2.4.5 Simple Amplifiers Using Two FETs at Mid-Frequencies..........65
2.5 High-Frequency Models for Transistors, and Simple Transistor
Amplifiers .....................................................................................................71
2.5.1 Introduction......................................................................................71
2.5.2 High-Frequency SSMs for BJTs and FETs ...................................74
2.5.3 Behavior of One-BJT and One-FET Amplifiers at High
Frequencies.......................................................................................78
2.5.4 High-Frequency Behavior of Two-Transistor Amplifiers .........89
2.5.5 Broadbanding Strategies ................................................................94
2.6 Photons, Photodiodes, Photoconductors, LEDs, and Laser Diodes.....97
2.6.1 Introduction......................................................................................97
2.6.2 PIN Photodiodes .............................................................................99
2.6.3 Avalanche Photodiodes................................................................105
2.6.4 Signal Conditioning Circuits for Photodiodes .........................108
2.6.5 Photoconductors............................................................................ 113
2.6.6 LEDs ................................................................................................ 115
2.6.7 Laser Diodes................................................................................... 117
2.7 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................126
3 The Differential Amplifier ........................................................ 141
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................141
3.2 DA Circuit Architecture............................................................................142
3.3 Common-Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR) ..............................................145
3.4 CM and DM Gain of Simple DA Stages at High Frequencies...........147
3.4.1 Introduction....................................................................................147
3.4.2 High-Frequency Behavior of AC and AD for the JFET DA......147
3.4.3 High-Frequency Behavior of AD and AC for the BJT DA .......152
3.5 Input Resistance of Simple Transistor DAs...........................................153
3.6 How Signal Source Impedance Affects Low-Frequency CMRR .......157
3.7 How Op Amps Can Be Used To Make DAs for Medical
Applications................................................................................................160
3.7.1 Introduction....................................................................................160
3.7.2 Two-Op Amp DA Designs...........................................................161
3.8 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................162
4 General Properties of Electronic Single-Loop Feedback
Systems......................................................................................... 173
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................173
4.2 Classification of Electronic Feedback Systems .....................................173
4.3 Some Effects of Negative Voltage Feedback .........................................175
4.3.1 Reduction of Output Resistance .................................................175
4.3.2 Reduction of Total Harmonic Distortion...................................177
4.3.3 Increase of NFB Amplifier Bandwidth at the Cost of Gain....179
4.3.4 Decrease in Gain Sensitivity........................................................181
4.4 Effects of Negative Current Feedback ...................................................183
4.5 Positive Voltage Feedback........................................................................187
4.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................187
4.5.2 Amplifier with Capacitance Neutralization .............................188
4.6 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................190
5 Feedback, Frequency Response, and Amplifier Stability ...... 199
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................199
5.2 Review of Amplifier Frequency Response ............................................199
5.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................199
5.2.2 Bode Plots.......................................................................................200
5.3 What Stability Means................................................................................205
5.4 Use of Root Locus in Feedback Amplifier Design...............................214
5.5 Use of Root-Locus in the Design of “Linear” Oscillators...................223
5.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................223
5.5.2 The Phase-Shift Oscillator............................................................225
5.5.3 The Wien Bridge Oscillator .........................................................228
5.6 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................230
6 Operational Amplifiers............................................................... 239
6.1 Ideal Op Amps...........................................................................................239
6.1.1 Introduction....................................................................................239
6.1.2 Properties of Ideal OP Amps ......................................................240
6.1.3 Some Examples of Op Amp Circuits Analyzed Using
IOAs.................................................................................................240
6.2 Practical Op Amps.....................................................................................245
6.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................245
6.2.2 Functional Categories of Real Op Amps...................................245
6.3 Gain-Bandwidth Relations for Voltage-Feedback OAs.......................248
6.3.1 The GBWP of an Inverting Summer..........................................248
6.3.2 The GBWP of a Noninverting Voltage-Feedback OA.............250
6.4 Gain-Bandwidth Relations in Current Feedback Amplifiers .............251
6.4.1 The Noninverting Amplifier Using a CFOA............................251
6.4.2 The Inverting Amplifier Using a CFOA....................................252
6.4.3 Limitations of CFOAs...................................................................253
6.5 Voltage Comparators.................................................................................256
6.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................256
6.5.2. Applications of Voltage Comparators .......................................259
6.5.3 Discussion.......................................................................................261
6.6 Some Applications of Op Amps in Biomedicine .................................263
6.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................263
6.6.2 Analog Integrators and Differentiators .....................................263
6.6.3 Charge Amplifiers .........................................................................267
6.6.4 A Two-Op Amp ECG Amplifier .................................................268
6.7 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................270
7 Analog Active Filters.................................................................. 281
7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................281
7.2 Types of Analog Active Filters ................................................................282
7.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................282
7.2.2 Sallen and Key Controlled-Source AFs .....................................283
7.2.3 Biquad Active Filters ....................................................................288
7.2.4 Generalized Impedance Converter AFs ....................................292
7.3 Electronically Tunable AFs.......................................................................297
7.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................297
7.3.2 The Tunable Two-Loop Biquad LPF ..........................................299
7.3.3 Use of Digitally Controlled Potentiometers To Tune a
Sallen and Key LPF.......................................................................301
7.4 Filter Applications (Anti-Aliasing, SNR Improvement, etc.) .............303
7.5 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................304
7.5.1 Active Filters ..................................................................................304
7.5.2 Choice of AF Components...........................................................304
8 Instrumentation and Medical Isolation Amplifiers................ 311
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 311
8.2 Instrumentation Amps..............................................................................312
8.3 Medical Isolation Amps............................................................................314
8.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................314
8.3.2 Common Types of Medical Isolation Amplifiers.....................316
8.3.3 A Prototype Magnetic IsoA .........................................................319
8.4 Safety Standards in Medical Electronic Amplifiers .............................322
8.4.1 Introduction....................................................................................322
8.4.2 Certification Criteria for Medical Electronic Systems.............324
8.5 Medical-Grade Power Supplies...............................................................329
8.6 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................329
9 Noise and the Design of Low-Noise Amplifiers for
Biomedical Applications ............................................................ 331
9.1 Introduction ................................................................................................331
9.2 Descriptors of Random Noise in Biomedical Measurement
Systems........................................................................................................332
9.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................332
9.2.2 The Probability Density Function ..............................................332
9.2.3 The Power Density Spectrum .....................................................334
9.2.4 Sources of Random Noise in Signal Conditioning Systems ...338
9.2.4.1 Noise from Resistors ......................................................338
9.2.4.2 The Two-Source Noise Model for Active Devices ....341
9.2.4.3 Noise in JFETs .................................................................342
9.2.4.4 Noise in BJTs....................................................................344
9.3 Propagation of Noise through LTI Filters .............................................346
9.4 Noise Factor and Figure of Amplifiers ..................................................347
9.4.1 Broadband Noise Factor and Noise Figure of Amplifiers .....347
9.4.2 Spot Noise Factor and Figure .....................................................349
9.4.3 Transformer Optimization of Amplifier NF and Output
SNR..................................................................................................351
9.5 Cascaded Noisy Amplifiers .....................................................................353
9.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................353
9.5.2 The SNR of Cascaded Noisy Amplifiers...................................354
9.6 Noise in Differential Amplifiers..............................................................355
9.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................355
9.6.2 Calculation of the SNRo of the DA ............................................356
9.7 Effect of Feedback on Noise ....................................................................357
9.7.1 Introduction....................................................................................357
9.7.2 Calculation of SNRo of an Amplifier with NVFB....................357
9.8 Examples of Noise-Limited Resolution of Certain Signal
Conditioning Systems ...............................................................................359
9.8.1 Introduction....................................................................................359
9.8.2 Calculation of the Minimum Resolvable AC Input Voltage
to a Noisy Op Amp ......................................................................359
9.8.3 Calculation of the Minimum Resolvable AC Input Signal
to Obtain a Specified SNRo in a Transformer-Coupled
Amplifier.........................................................................................361
9.8.4 The Effect of Capacitance Neutralization on the SNRo
of an Electrometer Amplifier Used for Glass Micropipette
Intracellular Recording.................................................................363
9.8.5 Calculation of the Smallest Resolvable DR/R in a
Wheatstone Bridge Determined by Noise ................................365
9.8.5.1 Introduction .....................................................................365
9.8.5.2 Bridge Sensitivity Calculations.....................................366
9.8.5.3 Bridge SNRo .....................................................................367
9.8.6 Calculation of the SNR Improvement Using a Lock-In
Amplifier.........................................................................................367
9.8.7 Signal Averaging of Evoked Signals for Signal-to-Noise
Ratio Improvement .......................................................................371
9.8.7.1 Introduction .....................................................................371
9.8.7.2 Analysis of SNR Improvement by Averaging ...........373
9.8.7.3 Discussion ........................................................................377
9.9 Some Low-Noise Amplifiers....................................................................377
9.10 The Art of Low-Noise Signal Conditioning System Design ..............378
9.10.1 Introduction....................................................................................378
9.11 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................381
10 Digital Interfaces ........................................................................ 391
10.1 Introduction ................................................................................................391
10.2 Aliasing and the Sampling Theorem .....................................................391
10.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................391
10.2.2 The Sampling Theorem................................................................392
10.3 Digital-to-Analog Converters (DACs)....................................................397
10.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................397
10.3.2 DAC Designs .................................................................................397
10.3.3 Static and Dynamic Characteristics of DACs...........................402
10.4 Hold Circuits ..............................................................................................405
10.5 Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADCs)....................................................406
10.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................406
10.5.2 The Tracking (Servo) ADC ..........................................................407
10.5.3 The Successive Approximation ADC.........................................408
10.5.4 Integrating Converters .................................................................410
10.5.5 Flash Converters............................................................................414
10.5.6 Delta–Sigma ADCs........................................................................418
10.6 Quantization Noise....................................................................................422
10.7 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................427
11 Modulation and Demodulation of Biomedical Signals ......... 431
11.1 Introduction ................................................................................................431
11.2 Modulation of a Sinusoidal Carrier Viewed in the Frequency
Domain........................................................................................................432
11.3 Implementation of AM.............................................................................434
11.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................434
11.3.2 Some Amplitude Modulation Circuits ......................................435
11.4 Generation of Phase and Frequency Modulation ................................441
11.4.1 Introduction....................................................................................441
11.4.2 NBFM Generation by Phase-Locked Loop ...............................442
11.4.3 Integral Pulse Frequency Modulation as a Means of
Frequency Modulation .................................................................444
11.5 Demodulation of Modulated Sinusoidal Carriers................................447
11.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................447
11.5.2 Detection of AM............................................................................447
11.5.3 Detection of FM Signals ...............................................................451
11.5.4 Demodulation of DSBSCM Signals............................................453
11.6 Modulation and Demodulation of Digital Carriers.............................457
11.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................457
11.6.2 Delta Modulation ..........................................................................459
11.7 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................461
12 Examples of Special Analog Circuits and Systems in
Biomedical Instrumentation ...................................................... 467
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................467
12.2 The Phase-Sensitive Rectifier...................................................................467
12.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................467
12.2.2 The Analog Multiplier/LPF PSR................................................468
12.2.3 The Switched Op Amp PSR ........................................................469
12.2.4 The Chopper PSR..........................................................................469
12.2.5 The Balanced Diode Bridge PSR ................................................470
12.3 Phase Detectors ..........................................................................................472
12.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................472
12.3.2 The Analog Multiplier Phase Detector......................................472
12.3.3 Digital Phase Detectors ................................................................475
12.4 Voltage and Current-Controlled Oscillators..........................................482
12.4.1 Introduction....................................................................................482
12.4.2 An Analog VCO............................................................................482
12.4.3 Switched Integrating Capacitor VCOs ......................................484
12.4.4 The Voltage-Controlled, Emitter-Coupled Multivibrator.......485
12.4.5 The Voltage-to-Period Converter and Applications................490
12.4.6 Summary.........................................................................................495
12.5 Phase-Locked Loops..................................................................................495
12.5.1 Introduction....................................................................................495
12.5.2 PLL Components...........................................................................497
12.5.3 PLL Applications in Biomedicine...............................................497
12.5.4 Discussion.......................................................................................502
12.6 True RMS Converters................................................................................502
12.6.1 Introduction....................................................................................502
12.6.2 True RMS Circuits .........................................................................503
12.7 IC Thermometers.......................................................................................508
12.7.1 Introduction....................................................................................508
12.7.2 IC Temperature Transducers .......................................................509
12.8 Instrumentation Systems.......................................................................... 511
12.8.1 Introduction.................................................................................... 511
12.8.2 A Self-Nulling Microdegree Polarimeter................................... 511
12.8.3 A Laser Velocimeter and Rangefinder.......................................522
12.8.4 Self-Balancing Impedance Plethysmographs ...........................528
12.8.5 Respiratory Acoustic Impedance Measurement System ........533
12.9 Chapter Summary .....................................................................................537
References ............................................................................................ 539

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