HANDBOOK ON SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (HSC)

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INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................................. xxiii
CHAPTER 1 – General...................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Historical background....................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Definition of satellite services ............................................................................................ 2
1.3.1 Fixed-satellite services FSS ........................................................................................ 2
1.3.2 Other satellite services................................................................................................ 5
1.4 Characteristics and services .............................................................................................. 8
1.4.1 Main components of a communication satellite system............................................... 8
1.4.1.1 The space segment ....................................................................................... 8
1.4.1.2 The earth segment ........................................................................................ 11
1.4.2 Frequency bands......................................................................................................... 11
1.4.3 Different types of system............................................................................................ 13
1.4.3.1 Global coverage systems .............................................................................. 13
1.4.3.2 Regional and national systems ...................................................................... 13
1.4.4 Basic characteristics of satellite telecommunications................................................... 15
1.4.4.1 Coverage...................................................................................................... 15
1.4.4.2 Multiple access............................................................................................. 16
1.4.4.3 Distribution.................................................................................................. 18
1.4.4.4 Frequency reuse and bandwidth utilization ................................................... 18
1.4.4.5 Propagation delay......................................................................................... 20
1.4.4.6 Flexibility and availability............................................................................ 21
1.4.5 Range of services provided......................................................................................... 22
1.4.5.1 Telephony, fax, etc., services........................................................................ 23
1.4.5.2 Television/video and audio services.............................................................. 24
1.4.5.3 Data transmissions and business services ...................................................... 26
1.4.5.4 Integrated services digital network (ISDN) services ...................................... 28
1.4.5.5 Emergency communication services ............................................................. 29
1.4.5.6 Cable restoration services ............................................................................. 30
1.5 Regulatory considerations and system planning............................................................... 30
1.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 30
1.5.2 Global regulations considerations ............................................................................... 31
1.5.2.1 Existing satellite systems .............................................................................. 32
1.5.2.2 New satellite systems ................................................................................... 34
1.5.3 Implementation of new systems .................................................................................. 35
1.5.3.1 Preliminary techno-economic studies............................................................ 36
1.5.3.2 Initial planning ............................................................................................. 36
1.5.3.3 Detailed planning ......................................................................................... 37
1.5.3.4 Installation ................................................................................................... 38
1.5.3.5 Operation and maintenance .......................................................................... 39
CHAPTER 2 – Some basic technical issues....................................................................................... 41
2.1 Characteristics of a satellite link....................................................................................... 41
2.1.1 The basic satellite link................................................................................................ 41
2.1.2 Basic characteristics of an antenna.............................................................................. 43
2.1.2.1 Antenna gain definition ................................................................................ 43
2.1.2.2 Antenna effective aperture and gain.............................................................. 44
2.1.3 Power radiated and received by an antenna ................................................................. 46
2.1.3.1 Power flux-density, equivalent isotropically radiated power and freespace
attenuation.......................................................................................... 46
2.1.3.2 Additional losses .......................................................................................... 49
2.1.4 Noise power received on the link................................................................................ 49
2.1.4.1 Noise temperature ........................................................................................ 49
2.1.4.2 Noise temperature of a receiver .................................................................... 50
2.1.4.3 Noise temperature of an antenna................................................................... 50
2.1.4.4 Noise temperature of a receiving system....................................................... 52
2.1.4.5 Figure of merit of a receiving station ............................................................ 53
2.1.5 Non-linear effects in power amplifiers ........................................................................ 54
2.1.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 54
2.1.5.2 Intermodulation............................................................................................ 55
2.1.5.3 Non-linear effects in digital transmission...................................................... 57
2.2 Quality and availability ..................................................................................................... 58
2.2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 58
2.2.2 Quality of Service (QoS) ............................................................................................ 60
2.2.3 ITU-R and ITU-T recommendations........................................................................... 61
2.2.3.1 Availability objectives.................................................................................. 61
2.2.3.2 Quality objectives, analogue transmission..................................................... 62
2.2.3.3 Quality objectives, digital transmission......................................................... 64
iii) SDH satellite transmission.......................................................................................... 67
iv) ATM satellite transmission......................................................................................... 68
2.2.4 Satellite operator standards......................................................................................... 68
2.2.5 Private corporate network operator performance requirements .................................... 69
2.3 Link calculations................................................................................................................ 71
2.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 71
2.3.2 Uplink (C/N0)u............................................................................................................ 72
2.3.3 Downlink (C/N0)d ....................................................................................................... 73
2.3.4 Link budget for a transparent transponder ................................................................... 74
2.3.4.1 Combined uplink and downlink (C/N0)ud ...................................................... 74
2.3.4.2 Other noise contributions to the link budget.................................................. 75
2.3.4.3 Total link budget (C/N0)total ........................................................................ 76
2.3.4.4 Atmospheric losses....................................................................................... 78
2.3.4.5 Remarks....................................................................................................... 78
2.3.4.6 Conclusions ................................................................................................. 79
2.3.5 Link budget for a regenerative transponder ................................................................. 80
2.4 Earth coverage and frequency reuse................................................................................. 81
2.4.1 Earth coverage by a geostationary satellite.................................................................. 81
2.4.1.1 Elevation angle from the Earth ..................................................................... 81
2.4.1.2 Types of earth coverages and of satellite antenna beams ............................... 85
2.4.2 Earth coverage by a non-geostationary satellite........................................................... 93
2.4.3 Frequency reuse ......................................................................................................... 94
2.4.3.1 Spatial isolation frequency reuse................................................................... 95
2.4.3.2 Polarization discrimination frequency reuse.................................................. 96
2.4.3.3 Common application of both methods of frequency reuse ............................. 97
2.4.3.4 Application of frequency reuse in non-geostationary satellite systems........... 98
2.5 Other topics in orbit/spectrum utilization......................................................................... 99
2.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 99
2.5.2 Modulation and coding techniques.............................................................................. 99
2.5.3 Intersystem interference and orbit utilization .............................................................. 100
2.5.4 On-board signal processing......................................................................................... 102
2.5.5 Homogeneity between networks ................................................................................. 102
APPENDIX 2.1 – Antenna radiation diagrams and polarization..................................................... 103
AP2.1-1 Radiation diagrams and beamwidths...................................................................... 103
AP2.1-2 Nomogram for antennas with circular aperture ...................................................... 106
AP2.1-2.1 General .................................................................................................... 106
AP2.1-2.2 Typical applications ................................................................................. 106
AP2.1-3 Antenna side lobes ................................................................................................ 109
AP2.1-4 Polarization........................................................................................................... 109
CHAPTER 3 – Baseband signal processing and multiplexing.......................................................... 115
3.1 General.............................................................................................................................. 115
3.2 Baseband signal processing – analogue............................................................................. 116
3.2.1 Voice and audio.......................................................................................................... 116
3.2.1.1 Channel-by-channel syllabic companding..................................................... 116
3.2.1.2 Voice carrier activation ................................................................................ 118
3.2.2 Video and TV............................................................................................................. 119
3.2.2.1 Composite analogue TV signal ..................................................................... 119
3.2.2.2 MAC TV signal............................................................................................ 119
3.2.3 Energy dispersal ......................................................................................................... 121
3.2.3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 121
3.2.3.2 Energy dispersal for analogue systems.......................................................... 121
3.3 Baseband signal processing – digital ................................................................................. 122
3.3.1 PCM, ADPCM........................................................................................................... 122
3.3.1.1 Pulse code modulation (PCM) ...................................................................... 122
3.3.1.2 Delta modulation (DM) ................................................................................ 126
3.3.1.3 Differential pulse code modulation (DPCM)................................................. 126
3.3.1.4 Pulse code modulation and adaptive differential coding at 32 kbit/s
(ADPCM) .................................................................................................... 126
3.3.2 Voice low rate encoding (LRE) [Ref. 3-4] .................................................................. 132
3.3.3 Data transmission [Ref. 3-1 and 3-2]........................................................................... 133
3.3.4 Video and TV signal................................................................................................... 135
3.3.5 Error control coding ................................................................................................... 137
3.3.5.1 Introduction to channel coding ..................................................................... 137
3.3.5.2 The two basic error control coding techniques .............................................. 139
3.3.5.3 FEC (forward error correction) ..................................................................... 140
3.3.5.4 Performance of error correcting coding techniques ....................................... 141
3.3.5.5 Typical parameters of error correcting techniques......................................... 143
3.3.5.6 Error correcting coding in existing satellite transmission systems ................. 144
3.3.5.7 System design with error correcting coding .................................................. 145
3.3.6 Encryption ................................................................................................................. 146
3.3.7 Other signal processing techniques ............................................................................. 147
3.3.7.1 Speech interpolation..................................................................................... 147
3.3.7.2 Digital circuit multiplication equipment (DCME) ......................................... 147
3.3.7.3 Energy dispersal for digital systems (scrambling) ......................................... 148
3.4 Multiplexing – analogue .................................................................................................... 151
3.5 Multiplexing – digital ........................................................................................................ 153
3.5.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 153
3.5.2 Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) [Ref. 3-1]...................................................... 153
3.5.3 The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) [Ref. 3-1 and 3-7] ...................................... 156
3.5.3.1 General considerations ................................................................................. 156
3.5.3.2 Transmission rate levels ............................................................................... 157
3.5.3.3 Definitions of the frame structure and related elements ................................. 158
3.5.3.4 Summary of SDH features............................................................................ 159
3.5.4 Asynchronous transfer mode [Ref. 3-1, 3-6] ............................................................... 161
3.5.4.1 Introduction and overview............................................................................ 161
3.5.4.2 ATM entities and their relationships ............................................................. 162
3.5.4.3 Transmission systems for ATM cells ............................................................ 163
3.5.4.4 ATM on satellite links .................................................................................. 164
3.5.5 Generalities on ISDN concepts – narrow and broadband [Ref. 3-1]............................. 164
3.5.5.1 The ISDN concept and requirements ............................................................ 164
3.5.5.2 Broadband aspects of ISDN.......................................................................... 171
APPENDIX 3.1 – Voice low bit-rate encoding [Ref. 3-3, 3-4] ........................................................... 173
AP3.1-1 Speech coders standardization aspects ................................................................... 173
AP3.1-2 The code excited linear prediction (CELP) concept ............................................... 174
AP3.1-2.1 Linear prediction coding (LPC) technique ................................................ 174
AP3.1-2.2 The CELP concept ................................................................................... 176
AP3.1-3 Coding of speech at 16 kbit/s using low-delay code excited linear prediction
(LD-CELP) (ITU-T Recommendation G.728) ............................................................ 176
AP3.1.3.1 LD-CELP encoder .................................................................................... 176
AP3.1-3.2 LD-CELP decoder.................................................................................... 177
AP3.1-3.3 Speech performance ................................................................................. 178
AP3.1-3.4 Performance with voiceband data ............................................................. 178
AP3.1-4 Coding of speech at 8 kbit/s using conjugate-structure algebraic-codeexcited
linear-prediction (CS-CELP) (ITU-T Recommendation G.729) ...................... 179
AP3.1-4.1 General description of the coder ............................................................... 179
AP3.1-4.2 Encoder.................................................................................................... 180
AP3.1-4.3 Decoder ................................................................................................... 180
AP3.1-4.4 Delay ....................................................................................................... 181
APPENDIX 3.2 – Error-correcting coding........................................................................................ 183
AP3.2-1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 183
AP3.2-2 Convolutional codes with soft decision Viterbi decoding....................................... 184
AP3.2-2.1 Convolutional encoders ............................................................................ 185
AP3.2-2.2 Distance properties of convolutional codes ............................................... 188
AP3.2-2.3 Soft decision decoding Viterbi algorithm.................................................. 189
AP3.2-2.4 Punctured convolutional code and their decoding ..................................... 191
AP3.2-2.5 Association of a binary convolutional code with QPSK modulation.......... 193
AP3.2-2.6 Performance of convolutionally coded QPSK system ............................... 196
AP3.2-3 Concatenated coding system with Reed-Solomon outer code ................................. 197
AP3.2-3.1 Basic configurations of the concatenated coding system ........................... 197
AP3.2-3.2 Reed-Solomon codes and algebraic decoding ........................................... 200
AP3.2-3.3 Interleaving.............................................................................................. 202
AP3.2-3.4 Word (interleaver) synchronization........................................................... 203
AP3.2-3.5 Block scrambling ..................................................................................... 203
AP3.2-4 Conclusion............................................................................................................ 204
APPENDIX 3.3 – Video signal compression techniques [Ref. 3-2, 3-5] ............................................ 205
AP3.3-1 Principal bit-rate reduction methods ...................................................................... 205
AP3.3-1.1 The first generation approach ................................................................... 205
AP3.3-1.2 The second generation approach............................................................... 208
AP3.3-2 Selected standards for digital video and TV applications – bit-rate reduction
techniques .................................................................................................................. 209
AP3.3-2.1 Videoconferencing – ITU-T Recommendation H.261 ............................... 209
AP3.3-2.2 The Joint Photographic Experts Group (JPEG) standard ........................... 209
AP3.3-2.3 The Moving Picture Experts Group (MPEG) standards............................. 210
AP3.3-2.4 The Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB) standard ...................................... 211
APPENDIX 3.4 – Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) [Ref. 3-1] ................................................... 212
AP3.4.1 The ATM/B-ISDN protocol reference model ......................................................... 212
AP3.4-2 Main features of the ATM/B-ISDN protocol reference model layers...................... 213
AP3.4-3 ATM entities and their relationships (Figure AP3.4-2)........................................... 215
AP3.4-4 ATM resource control aspects ............................................................................... 220
APPENDIX 3.5 – The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH) [Ref. 3-1] ........................................... 221
AP3.5-1 SDH multiplexing structure................................................................................... 221
AP3.5-2 Bandwidth provisioning ........................................................................................ 225
AP3.5-3 Network equipment ............................................................................................... 225
AP3.5-4 Network management, availability and protection ................................................. 227
CHAPTER 4 – Carrier modulation techniques ................................................................................ 231
4.1 Analogue modulation......................................................................................................... 231
4.1.1 Frequency modulation (FM) ....................................................................................... 231
4.1.1.1 FDM-FM ..................................................................................................... 231
4.1.1.2 SCPC-FM.................................................................................................... 233
4.1.1.3 System design (telephony)............................................................................ 234
4.1.1.4 TV-FM......................................................................................................... 235
4.1.2 Modulation................................................................................................................. 237
4.1.3 Demodulation............................................................................................................. 238
4.2 Digital modulation............................................................................................................. 242
4.2.1 Modulation schemes for satellite communications ...................................................... 242
4.2.2 BPSK and QPSK........................................................................................................ 246
4.2.3 Other digital modulation techniques ........................................................................... 249
4.2.3.1 Quadrature schemes ..................................................................................... 249
4.2.3.2 Trellis coded modulation.............................................................................. 257
4.2.4 Modems for digital communications........................................................................... 266
4.2.4.1 Digital transmissions .................................................................................... 266
4.2.4.2 Going through the key modules of the demodulator ...................................... 268
4.2.5 Conventional modem architectures ............................................................................. 269
4.2.5.1 Description of conventional modems ............................................................ 269
4.2.5.2 Specific requirements of burst modems ........................................................ 274
4.2.5.3 Sampling considerations............................................................................... 278
4.2.5.4 New techniques for TDMA mode transmission............................................. 279
4.2.6 Filtering techniques .................................................................................................... 280
4.2.6.1 Simplified theory.......................................................................................... 280
4.2.6.2 Basic presentation of FIR filters ................................................................... 282
CHAPTER 5 – Multiple access, assignment and network architectures......................................... 287
5.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................... 287
5.2 Frequency Division Multiple Access ................................................................................. 288
5.2.1 Multiplexed FDMA.................................................................................................... 289
5.2.2 Single Channel Per Carrier (SCPC) ............................................................................ 290
5.3 Time Division Multiple Access .......................................................................................... 292
5.3.1 System configuration.................................................................................................. 294
5.3.2 Synchronization in TDMA systems ............................................................................ 295
5.3.3 A typical example – The INTELSAT/EUTELSAT TDMA system ............................. 296
5.3.4 Frequency and Time Division Multiple Access (FDMA-TDMA)................................ 299
5.3.5 Packet transmissions................................................................................................... 300
5.3.6 Random Access TDMA (RA-TDMA) ........................................................................ 300
5.4 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)........................................................................... 301
5.4.1 CDMA and Spread Spectrum basic concepts .............................................................. 301
5.4.2 Direct sequence systems ............................................................................................. 303
5.4.3 Frequency Hopping systems ....................................................................................... 303
5.4.4 CDMA parameters and performance........................................................................... 303
5.4.5 Asynchronous and Synchronous CDMA..................................................................... 306
5.4.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 306
5.4.5.2 A-CDMA..................................................................................................... 306
5.4.5.3 S-CDMA...................................................................................................... 307
5.4.6 Power control techniques in CDMA systems .............................................................. 308
5.4.7 Other considerations on CDMA systems..................................................................... 309
5.4.7.1 Satellite transponder operation...................................................................... 309
5.4.7.2 Diversity implementation ............................................................................. 309
5.4.7.3 Capacity of CDMA systems ......................................................................... 309
5.4.7.4 Technological issues .................................................................................... 310
5.5 Demand Assignment (DAMA)........................................................................................... 310
5.5.1 General definitions ..................................................................................................... 310
5.5.2 Functional description of a DAMA system ................................................................. 311
5.5.3 Services available in DAMA mode............................................................................. 312
5.5.4 SCPC/DAMA systems ............................................................................................... 312
5.5.4.1 Operating principle for a telephone SCPC/DAMA system............................ 312
5.5.4.2 The SPADE system...................................................................................... 313
5.5.4.3 SCPC/DAMA systems for small-scale networks........................................... 313
5.5.5 TDMA/DAMA systems.............................................................................................. 315
5.5.6 MCPC/DAMA systems ("Bandwidth on Demand") .................................................... 316
5.5.7 Dimensioning DAMA systems ................................................................................... 316
5.6 Network architectures ....................................................................................................... 321
5.6.1 One-way networks...................................................................................................... 321
5.6.2 Two-way networks ..................................................................................................... 322
5.6.3 LEO satellites network architectures ........................................................................... 327
APPENDIX 5.1 – Additional considerations on coding, modulation and multiple access ............... 328
AP5.1-1 Bandwidth limited versus power limited operation ................................................ 328
AP5.1-2 Selection of multiple access, multiplexing and modulation .................................... 330
APPENDIX 5.2 – Intermodulation interference in travelling wave tubes for multiple access
communication satellites .......................................................................................................... 335
AP5.2-1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 335
AP5.2-2 Model representing non-linear satellite transponder ............................................... 336
AP5.2-3 Intermodulation products level .............................................................................. 337
AP5.2-4 Frequency plan selection ....................................................................................... 342
AP5.2-5 Formulas for SCPC............................................................................................... 342
APPENDIX 5.3 – Erlang Tables ........................................................................................................ 344
CHAPTER 6 – Space segment ........................................................................................................... 349
6.1 Satellite orbits .................................................................................................................... 349
6.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 349
6.1.2 Background................................................................................................................ 349
6.1.3 Orbital dynamics ........................................................................................................ 350
6.1.3.1 Keplerian orbits............................................................................................ 350
6.1.3.2 Orbit perturbations ....................................................................................... 353
6.1.3.3 Orbit determination ...................................................................................... 354
6.1.3.4 The geostationary orbit (GSO)...................................................................... 354
6.1.4 Orbit design................................................................................................................ 355
6.1.4.1 Environment constraints ............................................................................... 355
6.1.4.2 Communication constraints .......................................................................... 356
6.1.4.3 Satellite ground track and coverage .............................................................. 357
6.1.4.4 Orbit comparison for communication applications ........................................ 359
6.1.5 Constellation design ................................................................................................... 360
6.1.5.1 Orbit and constellation trade-off ................................................................... 360
6.1.5.2 Continuous single and multiple satellite coverage ......................................... 360
6.1.5.3 Non-permanent coverage.............................................................................. 362
6.2 General description of communication satellites .............................................................. 362
6.2.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 362
6.2.2 Satellite structural designs .......................................................................................... 363
6.2.3 Thermal control system.............................................................................................. 367
6.2.4 Satellite attitude and orbit (station-keeping) control systems ....................................... 369
6.2.4.1 Background.................................................................................................. 369
6.2.4.2 Attitude control ............................................................................................ 369
6.2.4.3 Orbit (station-keeping) control...................................................................... 372
6.2.5 Power supply.............................................................................................................. 374
6.2.6 Telemetry, command and ranging (TCR).................................................................... 377
6.2.7 The apogee motor....................................................................................................... 378
6.2.8 Characteristics of the payload of some communication satellite .................................. 380
6.3 The communication payload ............................................................................................. 381
6.3.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 381
6.3.2 Antenna subsystem..................................................................................................... 382
6.3.2.1 General ........................................................................................................ 382
6.3.2.2 Structures..................................................................................................... 383
6.3.2.3 Performance characteristics .......................................................................... 383
6.3.2.4 Antenna research and development trends .................................................... 390
6.3.3 Transparent (repeater) transponders............................................................................ 392
6.3.3.1 General ........................................................................................................ 392
6.3.3.2 The wideband-receiver subsystem................................................................ 395
6.3.3.3 The channelized subsystem .......................................................................... 396
6.3.3.4 Transponders without on-board processing................................................... 400
6.3.3.5 Transponder research and development trends .............................................. 404
6.3.4 Transponders with on-board processing...................................................................... 406
6.3.4.1 RF switching................................................................................................ 406
6.3.4.2 Regenerative transponders............................................................................ 407
6.3.4.3 Bit stream processing ................................................................................... 407
6.3.4.4 SS-TDMA with on-board TST switching stage............................................. 408
6.3.4.5 ISDN applications ........................................................................................ 408
6.3.4.6 Digital transponders: an example.................................................................. 410
6.3.4.7 Recent developments in OBP technology ..................................................... 412
6.4 Intersatellite links (ISL) .................................................................................................... 414
6.4.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 414
6.4.2 ISL benefits................................................................................................................ 415
6.4.3 Basic technologies...................................................................................................... 416
6.5 Special features of non-GSO (NGSO) satellite systems .................................................... 419
6.5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 419
6.5.2 Types of LEO networks.............................................................................................. 420
6.5.3 Benefits of broadband LEO networks ......................................................................... 420
6.6 Launching, positioning and station-keeping ..................................................................... 423
6.6.1 Launching .................................................................................................................. 423
6.6.2 Positioning on geostationary orbit............................................................................... 423
6.6.3 Station-keeping and payload operation monitoring ..................................................... 427
6.7 Reliability and availability considerations........................................................................ 429
6.7.1 Satellite reliability ...................................................................................................... 429
6.7.2 Satellite availability.................................................................................................... 431
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6.8 Management of satellite communication network operations.......................................... 432
6.8.1 Management of international satellite communication network (INTELSAT)
operations .................................................................................................................. 432
6.8.1.1 Technical and operational control centre (TOCC)......................................... 433
6.8.1.2 Spacecraft control centre (SCC).................................................................... 433
6.8.1.3 Tracking, telemetry, telecommand and monitoring (TTCM) ......................... 434
6.8.1.4 Communication system monitoring (CSM)................................................... 435
6.8.1.5 PCM-PSK network reference and monitor stations (NRMS)......................... 435
6.8.1.6 Operation of engineering service circuits (ESCs) .......................................... 435
6.8.1.7 TDMA-DSI network operations ................................................................... 435
6.8.2 Management of domestic satellite communications network operations ...................... 436
6.8.2.1 Network operation and control centre ........................................................... 437
6.8.2.2 Management of very small aperture earth terminals ...................................... 438
6.9 Satellite launch systems ..................................................................................................... 438
6.9.1 Background................................................................................................................ 438
6.9.2 Launcher considerations ............................................................................................. 439
6.9.3 Types of launch systems ............................................................................................. 439
6.9.3.1 Geostationary orbit (GSO)............................................................................ 439
6.9.3.2 Non-geostationary orbits (non-GSO) ............................................................ 440
6.9.4 Launcher selection...................................................................................................... 440
6.9.5 Current and future launch systems .............................................................................. 440
APPENDIX 6.1 –Examples of non-geostationary satellite systems................................................... 451
AP6.1-1 Teledesic satellite system...................................................................................... 451
AP6.1-1.1 Introduction.............................................................................................. 451
AP6.1-1.2 Constellation description .......................................................................... 451
AP6.1-1.3 Communications links .............................................................................. 452
AP6.1-1.4 Network structure..................................................................................... 453
AP6.1-1.5 Multiple access method ............................................................................ 455
AP6.1-1.6 Technical characteristics........................................................................... 458
AP6.1-1.7 Summary of teledesic network description................................................ 460
AP6.1-2 The SkyBridge satellite system.............................................................................. 460
AP6.1-2.1 System overview...................................................................................... 460
AP6.1-2.2 Space segment.......................................................................................... 461
AP6.1-2.3 Frequency band and polarization – Coordination process .......................... 465
AP6.1-2.4 Spot-beam steering and handover operation.............................................. 466
AP6.1-2.5 Transmission characteristics ..................................................................... 467
AP6.1-2.6 Earth segment .......................................................................................... 468
CHAPTER 7 – Earth segment ........................................................................................................... 471
7.1 Configuration and general characteristics of earth stations............................................. 471
7.1.1 Configuration, block diagrams and main functions...................................................... 471
7.1.1.1 The antenna system...................................................................................... 473
7.1.1.2 Low noise amplifiers (LNAs) ....................................................................... 474
7.1.1.3 Power amplifiers (PAs or HPAs: high power amplifiers) .............................. 475
7.1.1.4 Telecommunication equipment ..................................................................... 477
7.1.1.5 Multiplex/demultiplex equipment ................................................................. 478
7.1.1.6 Equipment for connection to the terrestrial network...................................... 480
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7.1.1.7 Auxiliary equipment..................................................................................... 480
7.1.1.8 Power supply equipment .............................................................................. 481
7.1.1.9 General infrastructure................................................................................... 482
7.1.2 Main earth stations ..................................................................................................... 483
7.1.2.1 Stations for international operation ............................................................... 483
7.1.2.2 Stations for regional or domestic systems ..................................................... 484
7.1.2.3 Hub earth stations for VSAT (very small aperture terminal) systems............. 486
7.1.2.4 Other main earth stations .............................................................................. 487
7.1.3 Small earth stations .................................................................................................... 488
7.1.3.1 General ........................................................................................................ 488
7.1.3.2 VSATs (very small aperture terminals)......................................................... 491
7.1.3.3 Other very small terminals............................................................................ 493
7.1.4 Transportable and portable earth station...................................................................... 494
7.1.4.1 Transportable earth station ........................................................................... 494
7.1.4.2 Portable earth stations .................................................................................. 495
7.2 Antenna system.................................................................................................................. 496
7.2.1 Main antenna parameters............................................................................................ 496
7.2.1.1 Antenna side lobes ....................................................................................... 496
7.2.1.2 Antenna noise temperature ........................................................................... 497
7.2.1.3 Figure of merit (G/T).................................................................................... 503
7.2.1.3 a) General ...................................................................................................... 503
7.2.1.3 b) Measurement of the G/T ratio..................................................................... 505
7.2.1.4 Wideband performance ................................................................................ 506
7.2.2 Radioelectrical design ................................................................................................ 507
7.2.2.1 Main types of antennas................................................................................. 507
7.2.2.2 Feed systems ................................................................................................ 514
7.2.2.2.1 Feed system composition.............................................................................. 514
7.2.2.2.2 Primary radiators.......................................................................................... 514
7.2.2.2.3 Polarizer operation ....................................................................................... 517
7.2.3 Mechanical antenna design......................................................................................... 521
7.2.3.1 General ........................................................................................................ 521
7.2.3.2 Antenna mechanical accuracy....................................................................... 521
7.2.3.3 Antenna steering and mount systems ............................................................ 522
7.2.3.4 Drive and servo subsystem........................................................................... 523
7.2.4 Antenna beam positioning – tracking systems............................................................. 525
7.2.4.1 General ........................................................................................................ 525
7.2.4.2 Tracking systems.......................................................................................... 527
7.2.4.3 Antenna beam positioning errors .................................................................. 533
7.2.5 Array antennas ........................................................................................................... 535
7.2.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 535
7.2.5.2 Types of array antennas................................................................................ 535
7.2.6 Installation ................................................................................................................. 539
7.2.6.1 Large antennas ............................................................................................. 539
7.2.6.2 Medium-sized antennas ................................................................................ 539
7.3 Low noise amplifiers.......................................................................................................... 540
7.3.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 540
7.3.2 FET low-noise amplifiers ........................................................................................... 541
7.3.3 Summary of the present characteristics of LNAs......................................................... 542
7.3.4 Low noise converters.................................................................................................. 543
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7.4 Power amplifiers................................................................................................................ 545
7.4.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 545
7.4.2 Microwave tubes ........................................................................................................ 546
7.4.2.1 Microwave tubes general operation .............................................................. 546
7.4.2.2 Klystron tubes .............................................................................................. 546
7.4.2.3 Travelling wave tube .................................................................................... 549
7.4.3 Microwave tube amplifier design................................................................................ 553
7.4.3.1 TWT power supply....................................................................................... 553
7.4.3.2 Klystron power supply ................................................................................. 556
7.4.3.3 Type of high voltage supply ......................................................................... 556
7.4.3.4 Tube protection ............................................................................................ 556
7.4.3.5 Driver amplifier (preamplifier) ..................................................................... 557
7.4.3.6 Logic unit..................................................................................................... 557
7.4.4 Solid-state power amplifiers ....................................................................................... 558
7.4.5 General performance requirements of HPAs ............................................................... 559
7.4.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 559
7.4.5.2 Non-linearity effects in power amplifiers ...................................................... 562
7.4.6 Output coupling systems and combiners ..................................................................... 571
7.4.6.1 Post-high-power amplification (post-HPA) coupling systems........................ 572
7.4.6.2 Pre-high-power amplification (pre-HPA) coupling systems........................... 577
7.4.6.3 Mixed-coupling systems............................................................................... 577
7.4.6.4 Comparison between coupling systems and combiners ................................. 577
7.5 Communications equipment (Generalities and analogue)................................................ 578
7.5.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 578
7.5.2 Frequency converters.................................................................................................. 580
7.5.2.1 General description and characteristics ......................................................... 580
7.5.2.2 Single and double frequency conversion....................................................... 582
7.5.2.3 Local oscillators ........................................................................................... 584
7.5.3 FDM-FM equipment .................................................................................................. 584
7.5.3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................. 584
7.5.3.2 IF filtering and equalization.......................................................................... 585
7.5.3.3 Modulation................................................................................................... 589
7.5.3.4 Demodulation............................................................................................... 589
7.5.3.5 Other functions............................................................................................. 589
7.5.3.6 FDM-FM with companding.......................................................................... 590
7.5.4 SCPC-FM equipment ................................................................................................. 591
7.5.5 FM television equipment ............................................................................................ 594
7.5.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 594
7.5.5.2 Audio programme transmission .................................................................... 597
7.5.5.3 Modulation and demodulation of TV carriers................................................ 602
7.6 Communications equipment (digital)................................................................................ 603
7.6.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 603
7.6.2 Communications equipment (SCPC and TDM)........................................................... 606
7.6.2.1 FDMA-SCPC-PSK....................................................................................... 607
7.6.2.1 a) Telephony .................................................................................................. 607
7.6.2.1 b) Data ........................................................................................................... 609
7.6.2.1 c) Frequency plan ........................................................................................... 609
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7.6.2.1 d) Digital SCPC system architecture and earth station terminals
operation...................................................................................................... 610
7.6.2.1 e) INTELSAT SCPC-QPSK system and earth station terminal........................ 612
7.6.2.1 f) Digital SCPC earth stations and terminals for domestic
communications ........................................................................................... 614
7.6.2.1 g) DAMA implementation.............................................................................. 614
7.6.2.2 FDMA-TDM-PSK (MCPC) equipment ........................................................ 617
7.6.2.2 a) General ...................................................................................................... 617
7.6.2.2 b) Terminal description and characteristics ..................................................... 618
7.6.2.2 c) FDMA-TDM-QPSK transmission parameters and terminal
performance ................................................................................................. 620
7.6.3 Communications equipment (TDMA)......................................................................... 622
7.6.3.1 General operation of TDMA terminals ......................................................... 622
7.6.3.2 High bit rate TDMA terminals (INTELSAT/EUTELSAT 120 Mbit/s
TDMA-DSI) ................................................................................................ 623
7.6.3.3 Medium bit rate TDMA terminals ................................................................ 631
7.6.4 Modems for digital communications........................................................................... 634
7.6.4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 634
7.6.4.2 Main features of a state of the art modem ..................................................... 635
7.6.4.3 Design options ............................................................................................. 635
7.6.4.3 a) Baseband data processing and terrestrial interfaces ..................................... 636
7.6.4.3 b) Modulation................................................................................................. 636
7.6.4.3 c) Demodulation............................................................................................. 638
7.6.4.4 Equipment description.................................................................................. 639
7.6.4.4 a) Equipment technology and layout overview................................................ 639
7.6.4.4 b) Framing unit............................................................................................... 640
7.6.4.4 c) The modulator ............................................................................................ 640
7.6.4.4 d) The demodulator ........................................................................................ 643
7.6.4.5 Future developments .................................................................................... 644
7.6.5 Digital television equipment ....................................................................................... 645
7.6.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 645
7.6.5.2 Digital TV transmission ............................................................................... 645
7.7 Monitoring, alarm and control.......................................................................................... 646
7.7.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 646
7.7.2 Major objectives of a MAC ........................................................................................ 647
7.7.3 Functional arrangement of a MAC.............................................................................. 648
7.7.4 MAC systems............................................................................................................. 651
7.7.5 Parameters monitored................................................................................................. 653
7.7.6 Summary.................................................................................................................... 654
7.8 General construction of main earth stations..................................................................... 655
7.8.1 Civil works................................................................................................................. 656
7.8.1.1 Large multi-antenna earth stations ................................................................ 656
7.8.1.2 Large single-antenna station ......................................................................... 660
7.8.1.3 Medium-sized stations.................................................................................. 661
7.8.2 Power system............................................................................................................. 662
7.8.2.1 Large earth stations ...................................................................................... 663
7.8.2.2 Medium-sized stations.................................................................................. 667
7.8.3 Antenna system (antenna civil works)......................................................................... 667
7.8.3.1 Large antennas ............................................................................................. 668
7.8.3.2 Medium-sized antennas ................................................................................ 668
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7.9 Satellite News Gathering (SNG) and Outside Broadcasting (OB) via satellite ................ 668
7.9.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 668
7.9.1.1 Definition and main functions....................................................................... 668
7.9.1.2 Configuration of the SNG system................................................................. 669
7.9.2 Antenna system.......................................................................................................... 672
7.9.3 Baseband signal processing ........................................................................................ 674
7.9.3.1 Analogue baseband signal ............................................................................ 674
7.9.3.2 Digital baseband signal................................................................................. 674
1) Video coding method ................................................................................................. 674
2) Audio coding method ................................................................................................. 675
3) Error correction method.............................................................................................. 675
4) Scramble .................................................................................................................... 675
5) Digital SNG system.................................................................................................... 675
7.9.4 Carrier modulation for SNG ....................................................................................... 675
7.9.4.1 Analogue modulation ................................................................................... 676
7.9.4.2 Digital modulation........................................................................................ 676
7.9.5 Power amplifiers ........................................................................................................ 678
7.9.6 Equipment for auxiliary communications.................................................................... 679
7.9.6.1 Communication channels for supervision and coordination........................... 679
a) 6/4 GHz band ......................................................................................................... 680
b) Land mobile earth station (LMES).......................................................................... 680
7.9.6.2 Circuits between the SNG terminal and satellite operator.............................. 680
7.9.6.3 Channels between the SNG terminal and the broadcaster’s premises ............. 680
7.9.7 Operating procedures required for temporary authorization for SNG........................... 681
7.9.7.1 Earth station approval................................................................................... 681
7.9.7.2 Frequency assignment and coordination ....................................................... 682
7.9.7.3 Space segment booking ................................................................................ 682
7.9.7.4 Auxiliary coordination circuits ..................................................................... 682
7.9.7.5 Additional support communications/transmission facilities ........................... 682
7.9.7.6 Radiation hazards ......................................................................................... 683
7.9.7.7 Importation and customs .............................................................................. 683
7.9.7.8 Contact point for information, guidance and approval................................... 683
7.10 Earth stations for direct reception of TV and audio programmes ................................. 683
7.10.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 683
7.10.1.1 Definitions ................................................................................................... 684
7.10.1.2 System configuration.................................................................................... 685
7.10.2 Transmission chain .................................................................................................... 686
7.10.3 Receive station........................................................................................................... 687
7.10.3.1 Outdoor unit (ODU) ..................................................................................... 688
7.10.3.2 Digital receiver............................................................................................. 689
7.10.3.4 Conditional access........................................................................................ 691
7.10.4 Digital audio broadcast............................................................................................... 691
7.10.5 Future developments (see Figure 7.84) ....................................................................... 692
APPENDIX 7.1.................................................................................................................................. 694
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CHAPTER 8 – Interconnection of satellite networks with terrestrial networks and user
terminals.................................................................................................................................. 699
8.1 Interconnection of telephony networks............................................................................. 699
8.1.1 General interfacing aspects ......................................................................................... 699
8.1.2 Digital networks interfacing aspects ........................................................................... 703
8.1.2.1 Interfacing problems between terrestrial networks and digital satellite
systems ........................................................................................................ 703
8.1.3 Earth station multiplex equipment .............................................................................. 711
8.1.3.1 Analogue satellite communications (FDMA-FDM) ...................................... 711
8.1.3.2 Digital satellite communications................................................................... 713
8.1.3.3 SCPC satellite communications (telephony) ................................................. 716
8.1.4 Digital circuit multiplication....................................................................................... 716
8.1.4.1 General ........................................................................................................ 716
8.1.4.2 Circuit multiplication operation .................................................................... 716
8.1.4.3 Low bit rate encoding................................................................................... 716
8.1.4.4 DCME interfaces.......................................................................................... 717
8.1.4.5 Multiple destination operation of DCME...................................................... 717
8.1.4.6 The effects of the installation of DCME on earth station equipment .............. 718
8.1.4.7 Conclusion................................................................................................... 719
8.1.5 Engineering service circuits........................................................................................ 724
8.1.6 Echo problems (echo controllers) ............................................................................... 726
8.1.6.1 Echo problems ............................................................................................. 726
8.1.7 Signalling transmission aspects................................................................................... 733
8.1.7.1 General ........................................................................................................ 733
8.1.7.2 Signalling, analogue ..................................................................................... 733
8.1.7.3 Signalling, digital ......................................................................................... 734
8.1.8 Problems of data transmission .................................................................................... 734
8.1.9 Facsimile transmission ............................................................................................... 735
8.1.9.1 General ........................................................................................................ 735
8.1.9.2 Group 3 and group 4 facsimile...................................................................... 736
8.1.9.3 Group 3 protocol .......................................................................................... 737
8.1.9.4 Non-standard capabilities ............................................................................. 741
8.1.9.5 Incorporation of faster modem technology.................................................... 742
8.1.9.6 Terminal selection and standardization aspects ............................................. 742
8.2 General considerations on protocols and terrestrial interfaces........................................ 744
8.2.1 VSAT network protocol model................................................................................... 744
8.2.2 Internal VSAT network architecture and protocol implementation .............................. 745
8.2.2.1 General ........................................................................................................ 745
8.2.2.2 Network kernel............................................................................................. 745
8.2.2.3 System architecture and satellite access protocols ......................................... 746
8.2.2.4 Intranetwork data communication protocols ................................................. 746
8.2.2.5 Packet switching function............................................................................. 747
8.2.2.6 VSAT network gateways.............................................................................. 748
8.2.2.7 ITU recommendation on VSAT network interconnection.............................. 750
8.3 Interconnection with user data terminating equipments ................................................. 750
8.3.1 Physical layer interface............................................................................................... 750
8.3.2 User protocol interface ............................................................................................... 750
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8.4 Interconnection with data networks.................................................................................. 753
8.4.1 Interconnection with packet switched terrestrial data networks.................................... 753
8.4.2 Interconnection with asynchronous and synchronous clear channels ........................... 757
8.4.3 Interconnection with synchronous multipoint protocol interfaces ................................ 757
8.5 Interconnection with ISDN................................................................................................ 758
8.5.1 Satellite transmission in the ISDN .............................................................................. 758
8.5.2 ISDN studies in ITU................................................................................................... 758
8.5.2.1 General ........................................................................................................ 758
8.5.2.2 ITU-T definitions ......................................................................................... 759
8.5.2.3 ITU-R definition of the hypothetical reference digital path (HRDP).............. 760
8.5.2.4 ITU-R performance requirements ................................................................. 761
8.5.3 ISDN structure and services........................................................................................ 763
8.5.4 Satellite network to ISDN interconnection scenarios................................................... 763
8.5.5 VSAT network ISDN interface................................................................................... 766
8.6 Interconnection with ATM networks................................................................................ 768
8.6.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 768
8.6.2 Transport of ATM multiplex....................................................................................... 769
8.6.3 Effect of satellite transmission on ATM...................................................................... 769
8.6.4 Role of satellite transmissions in ATM networks ........................................................ 771
8.6.4.1 Satellite as a transmission medium ............................................................... 771
8.6.4.2 Satellite as transmission and switching element ............................................ 771
8.6.5 ITU-R works on ATM satellite transmissions ............................................................. 772
8.6.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 772
8.6.5.2 ITU-R recommendation on satellite B-ISDN ATM performance ................... 772
8.6.5.3 ITU-R recommendation on satellite B-ISDN ATM availability ..................... 774
8.6.6 Some applications of ATM satellite transmissions ...................................................... 774
8.6.6.1 Internet traffic over satellite ATM................................................................ 774
8.6.6.2 Video and multimedia applications ............................................................... 775
8.6.7 ATM satellite transmission tests ................................................................................. 776
8.6.7.1 Measurement of performance at physical layer and ATM layer..................... 776
8.6.7.2 Satellite ATM switching system demonstration ............................................ 777
8.6.8 Conclusion: Future architectures for advanced ATM satellite networks....................... 779
8.7 Interconnection of television networks, television distribution........................................ 780
8.7.1 Historical overview .................................................................................................... 780
8.7.2 Interconnection of TV networks and distribution via satellite...................................... 781
8.7.3 Satellite transmission and broadcasting of digital television ........................................ 785
8.7.3.1 Driving opportunities for digitization............................................................ 785
8.7.3.2 Effects of digitization ................................................................................... 786
8.7.3.3 Connection of user terminals ........................................................................ 787
APPENDIX 8.1 – Introduction to signalling systems ........................................................................ 789
AP8.1-1 Signalling systems to be used within satellite networks.......................................... 789
AP8.1-1.1 General .................................................................................................... 789
AP8.1-1.2 Analogue signalling systems..................................................................... 789
AP8.1-1.3 Common channel signalling systems ........................................................ 791
AP8.1-1.4 Specific criteria for satellite networks ....................................................... 791
AP8.1-2 Signalling System No. 5........................................................................................ 792
AP8.1-2.1 General .................................................................................................... 792
AP8.1-2.2 Line signalling ......................................................................................... 792
AP8.1-2.3 Register signalling.................................................................................... 793
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AP8.1-3 Signalling System R2............................................................................................ 794
AP8.1-3.1 General .................................................................................................... 794
AP8.1-3.2 Line signalling ......................................................................................... 795
AP8.1-3.3 Register signalling.................................................................................... 796
AP8.1-3.4 Compatibility of System R2 with satellite links ........................................ 797
AP8.1-4 Signalling System No. 6........................................................................................ 800
AP8.1-4.1 General .................................................................................................... 800
AP8.1-4.2 Description of the common channel signalling system.............................. 800
AP8.1-5 Signalling System No. 7........................................................................................ 802
AP8.1-5.1 General .................................................................................................... 802
AP8.1-5.2 Signalling system structure....................................................................... 803
AP8.1-5.3 Signalling message................................................................................... 804
APPENDIX 8.2 – Introduction to the open systems interconnection (OSI) model .......................... 807
AP8.2-1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 807
AP8.2-2 Overview of the OSI reference model.................................................................... 807
AP8.2-2.1 A layer structure....................................................................................... 807
AP8.2-2.2 Service concept ........................................................................................ 807
AP8.2-2.3 Data processing........................................................................................ 808
AP8.2-2.4 Message routing ....................................................................................... 809
AP8.2-3 Description of the seven layers .............................................................................. 810
AP8.2-3.1 Physical layer........................................................................................... 810
AP8.2-3.2 Data link layer.......................................................................................... 810
AP8.2-3.3 Network layer .......................................................................................... 811
AP8.2-3.4 Transport layer ......................................................................................... 812
AP8.2-3.5 Session layer ............................................................................................ 812
AP8.2-3.6 Presentation layer ..................................................................................... 812
AP8.2-3.7 Application layer...................................................................................... 812
AP8.2-4 Perspectives on the OSI model .................................................................... 813
CHAPTER 9 – Frequency sharing, interference and coordination.................................................. 815
9.1 Radio Regulations provisions and ITU-R procedures...................................................... 815
9.1.1 Introduction................................................................................................................ 815
9.1.2 Frequency allocations................................................................................................. 816
9.1.3 Possible interference modes........................................................................................ 818
9.1.3.1 Modes of interference between space and terrestrial services ........................ 818
9.1.3.2 Modes of interference between stations of different space systems in
frequency bands with separated Earth-to-space and space-to-Earth
allocations.................................................................................................... 818
9.1.3.3 Modes of interference between stations of different space systems in
frequency bands for bidirectional use............................................................ 818
9.1.3.4 Propagation conditions over the interference paths ....................................... 819
9.1.3.5 Applications of the Radio Regulations.......................................................... 820
9.1.4 Radiation limitations .................................................................................................. 820
9.1.4.1 Stations of the FSS....................................................................................... 820
9.1.4.2 Terrestrial stations ........................................................................................ 822
9.1.5 Procedure for effecting coordination........................................................................... 825
9.1.5.1 General ........................................................................................................ 825
9.1.5.2 Table of Frequency Allocations and particular provisions (RR S9.21)........... 826
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9.1.5.3 Advance publication of information (API) .................................................... 827
9.1.5.4 Coordination procedure (see Section II of RR Article S9, and
Appendices S8 and S5)................................................................................. 828
9.1.6 Notification and registration of frequency assignments (RR S11.2) ............................. 829
9.1.7 Evolution of the procedures ........................................................................................ 830
9.2 Other coordination procedures ......................................................................................... 831
9.2.1 Coordination with INTELSAT based upon Article XIV of its Agreement ................... 831
9.2.1.1 General ........................................................................................................ 831
9.2.1.2 Article XIV intersystem coordination ........................................................... 831
9.2.1.3 Technical compatibility ................................................................................ 832
9.2.2 Coordination with Inmarsat ........................................................................................ 833
9.2.3 Coordination with other organizations ........................................................................ 833
9.3 Frequency sharing between GSO FSS networks .............................................................. 834
9.3.1 Frequency sharing between GSO FSS networks in unplanned bands ........................... 834
9.3.1.1 General: Procedure for effecting coordination with or obtaining
agreement of other administrations ............................................................... 834
9.3.1.2 Calculations to determine if coordination is required .................................... 835
9.3.1.3 Detailed coordination calculations ................................................................ 836
9.3.1.4 Applicable C/I criteria: single entry interference criterion ............................. 840
9.3.1.5 GSO FSS networks and feeder links of GSO MSS networks ......................... 840
9.3.1.6 Methods that may be used to facilitate coordination...................................... 840
9.3.1.6.2 Increase in angular separation....................................................................... 841
9.3.1.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................... 844
9.3.2 Frequency sharing between GSO FSS networks in planned bands............................... 844
9.3.2.1 WARC Orb-88 FSS Plan.............................................................................. 844
9.3.2.2 Use of the FSS planned frequency bands by non-GSO satellite systems ........ 848
9.3.3 Frequency sharing between GSO FSS networks and feeder links of BSS in
planned and unplanned in planned bands .................................................................... 849
9.4 Frequency sharing between the GSO FSS networks and other space services................ 850
9.4.1 Sharing between GSO FSS and the GSO BSS Plan..................................................... 850
9.4.1.1 GSO BSS Plans and GSO BSS FL Plans ...................................................... 850
9.4.1.2 Frequency sharing between the FSS and the BSS FL Plans ........................... 852
9.4.1.3 Frequency sharing between the BSS and BSS FL Plans and the other
services ........................................................................................................ 855
9.4.2 Frequency sharing between the FSS and the earth exploration-satellite service
(EESS)....................................................................................................................... 858
9.4.3 Frequency sharing between the GSO FSS and the GSO mobile-satellite service
(GSO MSS)................................................................................................................ 859
9.5 Frequency sharing between the GSO and non-GSO FSS and other GSO and
non-GSO space services (except the GSO/GSO case).................................................. 860
9.5.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 860
9.5.1.1 Background.................................................................................................. 861
9.5.1.2 Interference statistics between GSO and non-GSO networks......................... 862
9.5.2 Interference between non-GSO-FSS and GSO-FSS networks and between
non-GSO-FSS networks operating co-frequency in the same direction
(30/20 GHz band)....................................................................................................... 871
9.5.2.1 Interference between GSO-FSS and non-GSO-FSS networks ....................... 871
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9.5.2.2 Mutual interference between non-GSO-FSS networks .................................. 873
9.5.2.3 Interference between the non-GSO-FSS and the GSO FSS Plan
(RR Appendix S30B) ................................................................................... 874
9.5.3 Interference between GSO-FSS networks and non-GSO-MSS feeder links ................. 874
9.5.4 Mutual interference between non-GSO/non-GSO or non-GSO/GSO MSS (FL) .......... 875
9.5.4.1 Mutual interference between co-directional non-GSO MSS (FL) .................. 875
9.5.4.2 Mutual interference between non-GSO-MSS (FL) in reverse band
working (RBW) ........................................................................................... 876
9.5.5 Control of interference from non-GSO satellite systems into GSO satellite
systems ...................................................................................................................... 876
9.5.5.1 General: Possible use of the GSO bands (planned or unplanned, BSS
or FSS) by non-GSO satellite systems .......................................................... 876
9.5.5.2 Use of the unplanned and planned GSO FSS bands for non-GSO FSS
satellite systems ........................................................................................... 877
9.5.5.3 Use of the planned GSO BSS bands by introducing non-GSO FSS
satellite systems ........................................................................................... 879
9.5.6 Conclusion................................................................................................... 880
9.6 Frequency sharing between the FSS networks and other radio services in bands
also allocated to the FSS............................................................................................... 884
9.6.1 Sharing with ARNS and RDSS in the band 5 000-5 250 MHz (Earth-to-space
for FSS) ..................................................................................................................... 884
9.6.2 Sharing with ARNS in the band 15.430-15.630 GHz (Earth-to-space and spaceto-
Earth for FSS)........................................................................................................ 884
9.6.3 Sharing with radionavigation (RN) and radiolocation (RL) services in the band
13.75-14 GHz (Earth-to-space for FSS)...................................................................... 885
9.6.4 Sharing in the band 40.5-42.5 GHz (space-to-Earth for FSS) ...................................... 885
9.7 Inter-satellite service (ISS) ................................................................................................ 886
9.7.1 General ...................................................................................................................... 886
9.7.2 In the band 32-33 GHz ............................................................................................... 886
9.7.3 In the band 25.5-27.5 GHz.......................................................................................... 886
9.7.4 In the band 50.2-71 GHz ............................................................................................ 886
9.8 Frequency sharing between systems of the GSO and non-GSO FSS and the
terrestrial services ........................................................................................................ 887
9.8.1 Frequency sharing between systems of the GSO FSS and the terrestrial services ......... 887
9.8.1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 887
9.8.1.2 Calculation of contours around an earth station based on RR Appendix
S7 ................................................................................................................ 888
9.8.1.3 Permissible level of the interfering emission................................................. 889
9.8.1.4 Minimum permissible transmission loss ....................................................... 889
9.8.1.5 Determination of coordination contours........................................................ 890
9.8.1.6 Performance and interference criteria ........................................................... 890
9.8.1.7 Sharing criteria: coordination and interference calculations........................... 891
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9.8.2 Frequency sharing between systems of the non-GSO FSS and the terrestrial
service systems .......................................................................................................... 892
9.8.2.1 General ........................................................................................................ 892
9.8.2.2 Utilization of the space-to-Earth direction by the non-GSO MSS (FL)
on a shared basis with the FS........................................................................ 894
9.8.2.3 Frequency sharing between satellites of non-GSO FSS networks and
FS stations in the 18.8-19.3 GHz (space-to-Earth) and 28.6-29.1 GHz
(Earth-to-space) bands.................................................................................. 897
9.8.2.4 Determination of coordination area for earth stations of the non-GSO
satellites in the FSS or in the feeder links of the MSS (FL) and the
terrestrial stations in the FS; Review of RR Appendix 28/S7 by
WRC-2000 (see also Recommendations ITU-R IS.847/848/849) .................. 898
APPENDIX 9.1.................................................................................................................................. 900
APPENDIX 9.2 – Example of determination of coordination distance around an earth station..... 927
AP9.2-1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 927
AP9.2-2 Basic parameters ................................................................................................... 927
AP9.2-3 Earth station antenna gain...................................................................................... 928
AP9.2-4 Permissible level of the interfering emission.......................................................... 928
AP9.2-5 Minimum permissible basic transmission loss (propagation model (1)).................. 928
AP9.2-6 Normalized transmission loss (propagation model (2)) .......................................... 929
AP9.2-7 Coordination distance for propagation mode (1) .................................................... 929
APPENDIX 9.3 – C/I calculation for digital carriers........................................................................ 935
ANNEX 1 – Propagation.................................................................................................................... 939
AN1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 939
AN1.1 Overview of atmospheric effects .............................................................................. 939
AN2 Signal attenuation ........................................................................................................... 940
AN2.1 Method of predicting the long-term rainfall attenuation statistics from point
rainfall rate................................................................................................................. 940
AN2.2 Attenuation due to atmospheric gases, clouds and other precipitation ....................... 943
AN2.3 Signal scintillation and multipath effects .................................................................. 943
AN2.3.1 Tropospheric effects ..................................................................................... 944
AN2.3.2 Ionospheric effects ....................................................................................... 944
AN3 Effects of the atmosphere on polarization...................................................................... 944
AN3.1 Rotation of the plane of polarization due to the ionosphere........................................ 945
AN3.2 Wave depolarization due to the troposphere .............................................................. 946
AN3.2.1 Prediction of statistics of hydrometeor-induced cross-polarization.......................... 946
AN4 Increases in antenna noise temperature ......................................................................... 947
AN4.1 Sources of radio noise............................................................................................... 947
AN4.2 Atmospheric noise temperature effects on Earth-space paths ..................................... 948
AN5 Other propagation effects ............................................................................................... 948
AN6 Site diversity.................................................................................................................... 949
AN6.1 Diversity improvement factor ................................................................................... 950
AN6.2 Diversity gain ........................................................................................................... 950
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ANNEX 2 – Typical examples of link budget calculations................................................................ 958
AN2.1 Analogue multiplexed telephony (FDM-FM-FDMA) ................................................. 958
AN2.2 Digital transmission: rural communications networks (FDMA/SCPC/PSK)............. 962
AN2.2.1 Star network ......................................................................................................... 962
AN2.2.2 Mesh network....................................................................................................... 966
AN2.3 Multiplexed digital transmission (FDMA-TDM-PSK)................................................ 968
AN2.4 High bit-rate digital transmission (120 Mbit/s TDMA) .............................................. 971
AN2.4.1 Characteristics of the TDMA system..................................................................... 971
AN2.4.2 Characteristics of the EUTELSAT II capacity used for the TDMA system ............ 972
AN2.4.3 Performance objectives ......................................................................................... 972
AN2.4.4 Link budget calculation......................................................................................... 974
AN2.4.4.1 Fading in the uplink .................................................................................. 975
AN2.4.4.2 Fading in the downlink ............................................................................. 976
AN2.4.4.3 Comparison of available and required C/T ................................................ 977
AN2.5 Digital TV broadcasting (multiple programmes per transponder) ............................ 978
AN2.6 Satellite news gathering ............................................................................................... 980
AN2.7 30/20 GHz system with on-board processing (OBP) ................................................... 983
ANNEX 3 – General overview of existing systems ............................................................................ 985
AN3.1 International satellite systems .................................................................................. 985
AN3.1.1 INTELSAT.................................................................................................. 985
AN3.1.2 Intersputnik ................................................................................................. 991
AN3.1.3 Inmarsat ...................................................................................................... 995
AN3.2 Regional satellite systems ........................................................................................ 999
AN3.2.1 APSTAR satellite system (APT) .................................................................. 999
AN3.2.2 AsiaSat........................................................................................................ 1001
AN3.2.3 EUTELSAT................................................................................................. 1003
AN3.3 National satellite systems......................................................................................... 1009
AN3.3.1 Argentina (NAHUELSAT) .......................................................................... 1009
AN3.3.2 Australia...................................................................................................... 1009
AN3.3.3 China........................................................................................................... 1012
AN3.3.4 France ......................................................................................................... 1014
AN3.3.5 India ............................................................................................................ 1016
AN3.3.6 Italy............................................................................................................. 1020
AN3.3.7 Japan ........................................................................................................... 1022
AN3.3.8 Korea........................................................................................................... 1024
AN3.3.9 Spain ........................................................................................................... 1027
AN3.3.10 United States ............................................................................................. 1028
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ANNEX 4 – ITU Bibliography ................................................................................................. 1032
AN 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 1032
AN 4.2 Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, Geneva, 1992............. 1032
AN 4.3 Radio Regulations, Geneva, 1998 Edition ............................................................... 1032
AN 4.4 ITU-R S Series Recommendations (Fixed-satellite service)..................................... 1033
AN 4.5 ITU-R SNG Series Recommendations (Satellite news gathering) ............................ 1039
AN 4.6 ITU-R SF Series Recommendations........................................................................ 1039
AN 4.7 ITU-R IS Series Recommendations (Inter-service sharing and compatibility) .......... 1040
AN 4.8 ITU-R SA Series Recommendations (Space applications and meteorology) ............ 1040
AN 4.9 ITU-R P Series Recommendations (Radiowave propagation) .................................. 1041
AN 4.10 ITU-R BO Series Recommendations (Broadcasting-satellite service) .................... 1041
AN 4.11 ITU-R BT Series Recommendations (Broadcasting service (television))................ 1043
AN 4.12 ITU-R V Series Recommendations (Vocabulary and related subjects) ................... 1043
AN 4.13 ITU-T Recommendations...................................................................................... 1043
AN 4.14 ITU Special Autonomous Group (GAS) Handbooks.............................................. 1048
Concluding remarks.......................................................................................................................... 1049
General index .................................................................................................................................... 1053
Nomenclature of main abbreviations................................................................................................. 1066

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